Turner M. Rocket and Spacecraft Propulsion.. Principles, Practice and New Developments (2nd ed., Springer, 2005) (343s), Manuais, Projetos, Pesquisas de Engenharia Aeroespacial

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Rocket and Spacecraft Propulsion

Principles, Practice and New Developments (Second Edition)

Martin J. L. Turner

Rocket and Spacecraft

Propulsion

Principles, Practice and New Developments

(Second Edition)

Published in association with PP raxisraxis PP ublishingublishing Chichester, UK

Contents

Preface to the second edition............................... xiii

Preface to the ®rst edition................................. xv

Acknowledgements...................................... xvii

List of ®gures........................................ xix

List of tables......................................... xxiii

List of colour plates..................................... xxv

1 History and principles of rocket propulsion.................... 1 1.1 The development of the rocket........................ 1 1.1.1 The Russian space programme................... 6 1.1.2 Other national programmes...................... 6 1.1.3 The United States space programme................ 8 1.1.4Commentary............................... 13 1.2 Newton's third law and the rocket equation............... 14 1.2.1 Tsiolkovsky's rocket equation.................... 14 1.3 Orbits and space¯ight.............................. 17 1.3.1 Orbits.................................... 18 1.4Multistage rockets................................ 25 1.4.1 Optimising a multistage rocket................... 28 1.4.2 Optimising the rocket engines.................... 30 1.4.3 Strap-on boosters............................ 31 1.5 Access to space.................................. 34

Preface to the second edition

In the period since the publication of the ®rst edition, rocket propulsion and launcher systems have experienced a number of major changes. The destruction of the Space Shuttle Columbia, on re-entry, and the tragic loss of seven astronauts, focused attention on NASA, its management systems, and on the shuttle programme itself. This led to a major re-direction of the NASA programme and to the plan to retire the Space Shuttle by 2010. At the same time, President Bush announced what was e€ectively an instruction to NASA to re-direct its programme towards a return of human explorers to the Moon, and to develop plans for a human Mars expedition. This has signi®cant implications for propulsion, and, in particular, nuclear electric and nuclear thermal propulsion seem very likely to play a part in these deep space missions. The ®rst example is likely to be the Jupiter Icy Moons Orbiter, to be powered by a nuclear electric thruster system. I have thought it wise therefore to include a new chapter on nuclear thermal propulsion. This is based on the work done in the 1960s by both NASA and the Russian space agencies to develop and test nuclear rocket engines, with updates based on the latest thinking on this subject. There are also major revisions to the chapters on electric propulsion and chemical rocket engines. The rest of the book has been revised and updated throughout, and a new appendix on Ariane 5 has been provided. The planned update to the Space Shuttle sections has been abandoned, given its uncertain future. Since its publication, this book has modestly ful®lled the hope I had for it, that it would prove useful to those requiring the basics of space propulsion, either as students or as space professionals. As a replacement for the now out of print ®rst edition, I venture to hope that this second edition will prove equally useful.

Martin J. L. Turner Leicester University, June 2004

explanation, rather than the excellence or currency of the item itself. Appendix 2 includes a table of present-day launch vehicles, although this is not exhaustive, and new vehicles are constantly appearing. My early research for this book indicated that the development of modern rockets took place mostly during the middle years of the last century, and that we were in the mature phase. The Space Shuttle had been around for 20 years, and was itself the epitome of rocket design; this is still true, but the closing years of the twentieth century have seen a renaissance in rocketry. While engines designed in the 1960s are still in use, new engines are now becoming available, and new vehicles are appearing in signi®cant numbers. This seems to be driven by the rapidly growing commercial demand for launches, but is also the result of the opening up of Russian space technology to the world. I have tried to re¯ect this new spirit in the last two chapters, dealing with electric propulsion ± now a reality ± and the single stage to orbit, which is sure to be realised very soon. However, it is dicult to predict beyond the next few years where rocket design will lead us. The SSTO should reduce space access costs, and make space tourism possible, at least to Earth orbit. Commercial use of space will continue to grow, to support mobile communication and the Internet. These demands should result in further rocket development and cheaper access to space. Progress in my own ®eld of space science is limited, not by ideas, but by the cost of scienti®c space missions. As a space scientist I hope that cheaper launches will mean that launches of spacecraft for scienti®c purposes will become less rare. As a human being I hope that new developments in rocket engines and vehicles will result in further human exploration of space: return to the Moon, and a manned mission to Mars. This preface was originally written during the commissioning of the XMM± Newton X-ray observatory, which successfully launched on Ariane 504in December

1999. The Ariane 5 is the latest generation of heavy launcher, and the perfection of its launch, which I watched, is a tribute to the rocket engineers who built it. But launching is still a risky business, however carefully the rocket is designed and assembled. There is always that thousand to one chance that something will go wrong; and as space users we have to accept that chance.

Martin J. L. Turner Leicester University, March 2000

xvi Preface to the ®rst edition

Acknowledgements

I have received help in the preparation of this book from many people, including my colleagues in the Department of Physics and Astronomy at Leicester University and at the Space Research Centre, Leicester, and members of the XMM team. I am particularly grateful to the rocket engineers of ISAS, Lavotchkin Institute, Estec, and Arianespace, who were patient with my questions; the undergraduates who attended and recalled (more or less satisfactorily) lectures on rocket engines and launcher dynamics; and, of course, my editor, Bob Marriott. While the contents of this book owe much to these people, any errors are my own. I am grateful to the following for permission to reproduce copyright material and technical information: SocieÂte National d'Etude et Construction de Moteurs d'Aviation (SNECMA), for permission to reproduce the propellant ¯ow diagrams of Ariane engines (Figures 3.5, 3.6, 3.7 and 3.9 in the colour section); Boeing± Rocketdyne and the University of Florida, for permission to reproduce the SSME ¯ow diagram (Figure 3.8, colour section) and the aerospike engine (Figure 7.11); NASA/JPL/California Institute of Technology, for permission to reproduce the picture of the Deep Space 1 ion engine (Figure 6.16 and cover); the European Space Agency, for the picture of the XMM±Newton launch on Ariane 504(cover); and Mark Wade and Encyclopaedia Astronautica, for permission to use tabular material which appears in Chapters 2 and 3 and Appendix 2. Figure 6.15 is based on work by P.E. Sandorf in Orbital and Ballistic Flight (MIT Department of Aeronautics and Astronautics, 1960), cited in Hill and Peterson (see Further Reading). Other copyright material is acknowledged in the text.

• 2 The thermal rocket engine
  • 2.1 The basic con®guration
  • 2.2 The development of thrust and the effect of the atmosphere.
    • 2.2.1 Optimising the exhaust nozzle
  • 2.3 The thermodynamics of the rocket engine
    • 2.3.1 Exhaust velocity
    • 2.3.2 Mass ¯ow rate
  • 2.4The thermodynamic thrust equation
    • 2.4.1 The thrust coef®cient and the characteristic velocity.
  • 2.5 Computing rocket engine performance
    • 2.5.1 Speci®c impulse
    • 2.5.2 Example calculations
  • 2.6 Summary
• 3 Liquid propellant rocket engines
  • 3.1 The basic con®guration of the liquid propellant engine
  • 3.2 The combustion chamber and nozzle
    • 3.2.1 Injection
    • 3.2.2 Ignition.
    • 3.2.3 Thrust vector control.
  • 3.3 Liquid propellant distribution systems
    • 3.3.1 Cavitation
    • 3.3.2 Pogo
  • 3.4Cooling of liquid-fuelled rocket engines
  • 3.5 Examples of rocket engine propellant ¯ow
    • 3.5.1 The Aestus engine on Ariane
    • 3.5.2 The Ariane Viking engines
    • 3.5.3 The Ariane HM7 B engine
    • 3.5.4The Vinci cryogenic upper-stage engine for Ariane
    • 3.5.5 The Ariane 5 Vulcain cryogenic engine
    • 3.5.6 The Space Shuttle main engine
    • 3.5.7 The RS 68 engine
    • 3.5.8 The RL 10 engine
  • 3.6 Combustion and the choice of propellants
    • 3.6.1 Combustion temperature
    • 3.6.2 Molecular weight
    • 3.6.3 Propellant physical properties
  • 3.7 The performance of liquid-fuelled rocket engines
    • 3.7.1 Liquid oxygen±liquid hydrogen engines
    • 3.7.2 Liquid hydrocarbon±liquid oxygen engines
    • 3.7.3 Storable propellant engines
• 4 Solid propellant rocket motors
  • 4.1 Basic con®guration.
  • 4.2 The properties and the design of solid motors
  • 4.3 Propellant composition
    • 4.3.1 Additives.
    • 4.3.2 Toxic exhaust.
    • 4.3.3 Thrust stability
    • 4.3.4 Thrust pro®le and grain shape.
  • 4.4 Integrity of the combustion chamber
    • 4.4.1 Thermal protection
    • 4.4.2 Inter-section joints
    • 4.4.3 Nozzle thermal portection.
  • 4.5 Ignition
  • 4.6 Thrust vector control
  • 4.7 Two modern solid boosters
    • 4.7.1 The Space Shuttle SRB
    • 4.7.2 The Ariane MPS
• 5 Launch vehicle dynamics
  • 5.1 More on the rocket equation
    • 5.1.1 Range in the absence of gravity
  • 5.2 Vertical motion in the Earth's gravitational ®eld
    • 5.2.1 Vehicle velocity
    • 5.2.2 Range.
  • 5.3 Inclined motion in a gravitational ®eld.
    • 5.3.1 Constant pitch angle
    • 5.3.2 The ¯ight path at constant pitch angle
  • 5.4Motion in the atmosphere
    • 5.4.1 Aerodynamic forces
    • 5.4.2 Dynamic pressure
  • 5.5 The gravity turn
  • 5.6 Basic launch dynamics
    • 5.6.1 Airless bodies.
  • 5.7 Typical Earth-launch trajectories
    • 5.7.1 The vertical segment of the trajectory
    • 5.7.2 The gravity turn or transition trajectory
    • 5.7.3 Constant pitch or the vacuum trajectory
    • 5.7.4Orbital injection
  • 5.8 Actual launch vehicle trajectories
    • 5.8.1 The Mu-3-S-II launcher
    • 5.8.2 Ariane
    • 5.8.3 Pegasus.
• 6 Electric propulsion.
  • 6.1 The importance of exhaust velocity
  • 6.2 Revived interest in electric propulsion
  • 6.3 Principles of electric propulsion.
    • 6.3.1 Electric vehicle performance
    • 6.3.2 Vehicle velocity as a function of exhaust velocity
    • 6.3.3 Vehicle velocity and structural/propellant mass
  • 6.4Electric thrusters
    • 6.4.1 Electrothermal thrusters
    • 6.4.2 Arc-jet thrusters
  • 6.5 Electromagnetic thrusters
    • 6.5.1 Ion propulsion
    • 6.5.2 The space charge limit
    • 6.5.3 Electric ®eld and potential
    • 6.5.4Ion thrust
    • 6.5.5 Propellant choice
    • 6.5.6 Deceleration grid
    • 6.5.7 Electrical ef®ciency
  • 6.6 Plasma thrusters
    • 6.6.1 Hall effect thrusters
    • 6.6.2 Radiofrequency thrusters
  • 6.7 Low-power electric thrusters
  • 6.8 Electrical power generation
    • 6.8.1 Solar cells
    • 6.8.2 Solar generators
    • 6.8.3 Radioactive thermal generators
    • 6.8.4Nuclear ®ssion power generators
  • 6.9 Applications of electric propulsion
    • 6.9.1 Station-keeping.
    • 6.9.2 Low Earth orbit to geostationary orbit
    • 6.9.3 Nine-month one-way mission to Mars.
    • 6.9.4Gravity loss and thrust
  • 6.10 Deep Space 1 and the NSTAR ion engine
  • 6.11 SMART-1 and the PPS-1350
• 7 Nuclear propulsion.
  • 7.1 Power, thrust, and energy
  • 7.2 Nuclear ®ssion basics
  • 7.3 A sustainable chain reaction
  • 7.4Calculating the criticality
  • 7.5 The reactor dimensions and neutron leakage
  • 7.6 Control
  • 7.7 Re¯ection.
  • 7.8 Prompt and delayed neutrons.
  • 7.9 Thermal stability
  • 7.10 The principle of nuclear thermal propulsion
  • 7.11 The fuel elements.
  • 7.12 Exhaust velocity of a nuclear thermal rocket
  • 7.13 Increasing the operating temperature
  • 7.14The nuclear thermal rocket engine
    • 7.14.1 Radiation and its management
    • 7.14.2 Propellant ¯ow and cooling
    • 7.14.3 The control drums
    • 7.14.4 Start-up and shut-down
    • 7.14.5 The nozzle and thrust generation
  • 7.15 Potential applications of nuclear engines.
  • 7.16 Operational issues with the nuclear engine
  • 7.17 Interplanetary transfer manoeuvres
  • 7.18 Faster interplanetary journeys
  • 7.19 Hydrogen storage
  • 7.20 Development status of nuclear thermal engines
  • 7.21 Alternative reactor types
  • 7.22 Safety issues
  • 7.23 Nuclear propelled missions
• 8 Advanced thermal rockets
  • 8.1 Fundamental physical limitations
    • 8.1.1 Dynamical factors
  • 8.2 Improving ef®ciency
    • 8.2.1 Exhaust velocity
  • 8.3 Thermal rockets in atmosphere, and the single stage to orbit
    • 8.3.1 Velocity increment for single stage to orbit
    • 8.3.2 Optimising the exhaust velocity in atmosphere
    • 8.3.3 The rocket equation for variable exhaust velocity
  • 8.4Practical approaches to SSTO
    • 8.4.1 High mass ratio
  • 8.5 Practical approaches and developments
    • 8.5.1 Engines.
  • 8.6 Vehicle design and mission concept
    • 8.6.1 Optimising the ascent
    • 8.6.2 Optimising the descent
  • 8.7 SSTO concepts
    • 8.7.1 The use of aerodynamic lift for ascent
• Appendix 1 Orbital motion
  • A1.1 Recapitulation of circular motion
  • A1.2 General (non-circular) motion of a spacecraft in a gravitational ®eld
• Appendix 2 Launcher survey
  • A2.1 Launch site.
  • A2.2 Launcher capability
  • A2.3 Heavy launchers
  • A2.4Medium Launchers
  • A2.5 Small launchers
• Appendix 3 Ariane
  • A3.1 The basic vehicle components.
  • A3.2 Evolved Ariane 5.
• Appendix 4 Glossary of symbols
• Further reading.
• Index
• 1.1 Konstantin Tsiolkovsky
• 1.2 Herman Oberth.
• 1.3 Robert Goddard
• 1.4 The J-2 engine used for the upper stages of Saturn V
• 1.5 The launch of the Space Shuttle Atlantis, 3 October
• 1.6 Tsiolkovsky's rocket equation.
• 1.7 Spacecraft movement.
• 1.8 Orbit shapes
• 1.9 Injection velocity and altitude.
• 1.10 Multistaging
• 1.11 Launch vehicle with boosters
• 2.1 A liquid-fuelled rocket engine
• 2.2 A solid-fuelled rocket motor.
• 2.3 Forces in the combustion chamber and exhaust nozzle
• 2.4 Gas ¯ow through the nozzle.
• 2.5 Static force due to atmospheric pressure
• 2.6 P±V diagram for a heat engine
• 2.7 Gas velocity as a function of the pressure ratio
• 2.8 Mass ¯ow in the nozzle
• 2.9 Variation of ¯ow density through the nozzle
  • pressure ratio 2.10 Area, velocity and ¯ow density relative to the throat valves as a function of the
• 2.11 Expansion ratio as a function of the pressure ratio for changing
  • pressures. 2.12 Thrust coecient plotted against expansion ratio for di€erent atmospheric
  • molecular weight 2.13 Characteristic velocity as a function of the combustion temperature and
• 3.1 Schematic of a liquid-propellant engine
• 3.2 Injection and combustion.
• 3.3 Types of injector
• 3.4 The impinging jet injector
• 3.5 The Aestus engine on Ariane
  • has been removed 3.6 The pump-fed variant Aestus engine ®ring. In this test the long nozzle extension
• 3.7 The Vinci cryogenic upper-stage engine
• 3.8 The Vulcain 2 under test
• 3.9 The SSME on a test stand
• 3.10 The RS 68 engine ®ring
• 3.11 The RL 10 engine
  • di€erent propellant combinations 3.12 The variation of exhaust velocity, temperature and molecular weight for
• 4.1 Schematic of a solid-fuelled rocket motor
• 4.2 Cross-sections of grains
• 4.3 Thermal protection
• 4.4 The Ariane MPS solid booster
• 5.1 Velocity function as a function of mass ratio
• 5.2 Range as a function of mass ratio.
• 5.3 Gravity loss: velocity gain and thrust-to-weight ration
• 5.4 Thrust and pitch angle.
• 5.5 Gravity loss: velocity gain and pitch angle
• 5.6 Flight path angle as a function of time and pitch angle
• 5.7 The aerodynamic forces acting on a rocket
• 5.8 Dynamic pressure, velocity and altitude as functions of mass ratio
• 5.9 Flight path angles and velocity as functions of time for a gravity turn
• 5.10 Velocity, acceleration and altitude as functions of time
• 5.11 Dynamic pressure and pitch angle as functions of time
• 5.12 Ariane 4dynamic parameters
• 5.13 Pegasus dynamic parameters
• 6.1 Vehicle velocity and payload fraction as a function of exhaust velocity
• 6.2 Vehicle velocity as a function of exhaust velocity and burn time
• 6.3 Vehicle velocity as a function of payload/propellant mass and exhaust velocity
• 6.4 Vehicle velocity as a function of power supply eciency and exhaust velocity
• 6.5 Schematic of an electrothermal thruster.
• 6.6 Schematic of an arc-jet thruster
• 6.7 A schematic diagram of the NSTAR ion thruster.
• 6.8 The NSTAR engine mounted on Deep Space 1 for testing
• 6.9 Electric ®eld and potential in space charge limit
• 6.10 Thrust per unit area as a function of quiescent ®eld for an ion thruster
• 6.11 Exhaust velocity and ion species for an ion thruster
• 6.12 Thrust-to-power ratio for various ions as a function of exhaust velocity.
  • perigee 6.13 Two ion engines that were used on the ESA Artemis spacecraft to raise the
• 6.14 Principle of the plasma thruster
• 6.15 Principle of the Hall e€ect thruster
• 6.16 Schematic of the Hall thruster
• 6.17 The Russian SP-100 Hall e€ect thruster
• 6.18 A Russian D-100 TAL Hall thruster with a metallic anode layer
• 6.19 The concept of the VASIMIR radiofrequency plasma thruster
• 6.20 A complete RTG, cutaway.
• 6.21 A single section of a RTG heat generator
• 6.22 A Stirling cycle mechanical electricity generator
• 6.23 An early United States designed nuclear ®ssion power generator
• 6.24 An early design for a spacecraft with nuclear electric generation
• 6.25 The JIMO mission concept, powered by a ®ssion reactor electrical system
  • exhaust velocity. 6.26 The propellant eciency as a function of the ratio of the vehicle velocity to the
  • propulsion 6.27 Velocity increment loss factor as a function of thrust-to-weight ratio for electric
• 6.28 The NSTAR ion thruster operating on the Deep Space 1 spacecraft
• 7.1 Test ®ring of a nuclear rocket engine at Jackass Flats in Nevada.
  • uranium 7.2 Schematic graph of the cross section for neutron interactions in natural
• 7.3 The ®ssion chain
• 7.4 The NRX-NERVA nuclear rocket engine at the test stand
• 7.5 The principle of nuclear thermal propulsion.
• 7.6 Fuel element assembly from the KIWI reactor core
• 7.7 The KIWA A-Prime reactor on its test stand.
• 7.8 Cutaway drawing of a NERVA nuclear rocket engine
• 7.9 Close-up of the propellant delivery part of the NERVA engine
• 7.10 The hot bleed cycle
• 7.11 The Earth±Mars minimum energy transfer orbit
• 7.12 A short ¯ight to Mars
• 7.13 The transit time to Mars as a function of initial delta-V and orbit eccentricity
• 7.14 The KIWI reactor
• 7.15 The NERVA family of engines
  • spacecraft for launch in the United States 7.16 The scheme for approval of the use of Radioactive Thermal Generators on
• 8.1 Separation of two masses
• 8.2 Propulsion eciency as a function of mass ratio
• 8.3 Thrust coecient in vacuo as a function of pressure ratio
  • burn time 8.4 Velocity increment and mass ratio necessary to reach orbit, as a function of
  • atmosphere for ®xed and variable ratios 8.5 Instantaneous thrust coecient as a function of pressure through the
  • expansion 8.6 Normalised vehicle velocity as a function of mass ratio for ®xed and variable
• 8.7 Flow separation in a nozzle
• 8.8 Principle of the plug nozzle
• 8.9 Plug nozzle exhaust streams for varying atmospheric pressure
• 8.10 Principle of the aerospike nozzle
• 8.11 The linear aerospike engine
• A1.1 Circular motion
• A1.2 Non-circular motion
• 1.1 The Saturn V rocket List of tables
• 3.1 Combustion temperature and exhaust velocity for di€erent propellants
• 3.2 Liquid oxygen engines
• 3.3 Storable propellant engines
• 4.1 Two modern solid boosters
• 6.1 Development status and heritage of some Hall e€ect thrusters.
  • cores 7.1 Melting/sublimation points of some common constituents of nuclear rocket
  • programme 7.2 Complete nuclear thermal rocket engine schemes based on the NERVA
• 7.3 The tests carried out for the NERVA programme up to
• A.2.1 Launchers.

List of colour plates (between pages 150 and 151)

1 The Ariane 5 Aestus engine. 2 The Ariane Viking engine. 3 The Ariane HM7 B engine. 4 The Space Shuttle main engine. 5 The Ariane 5 Vulcain cryogenic engine. 6 The launch of Apollo 16 on the Saturn V rocket. 7 Test ®ring of RL 10 engine. 8 Firing test of the Space Shuttle main engine. 9 Testing the thrust vector control system on a Space Shuttle main engine while ®ring. 10 Titan IV launcher. 11 The NSTAR ion engine mounted on Deep Space 1 prepared for testing in a vacuum. 12 The NSTAR ion engine ®ring in a vacuum tank. 13 Artists impression of Deep Space 1. 14 The PPS 1350 Hall e€ect engine used for SMART-1, under test. 15 Artists impression of the SMART-1 spacecraft on its way to the Moon. 16 Experimental ion propulsion system under test. 17 The NERVA Nuclear Thermal Rocket Engine. 18 A NERVA programme engine on the the test stand. 19 A possible Mars expedition vehicle powered by three nuclear thermal rocket engines (artists impression). 20 An exploded view of the Ariane 5 launcherÐsee Appendix 3.