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Handbook of

Plant

Nutrition

Organic Chemicals in the Soil Environment, Volumes 1 and 2, edited by C. A. I. Goring and J. W. Hamaker Humic Substances in the Environment, M. Schnitzer and S. U. Khan Microbial Life in the Soil: An Introduction, T. Hattori

Principles of Soil Chemistry, Kim H. Tan Soil Analysis: Instrumental Techniques and Related Procedures, edited by Keith A. Smith Soil Reclamation Processes: Microbiological Analyses and Applications, edited by Robert L. Tate III and Donald A. Klein Symbiotic Nitrogen Fixation Technology, edited by Gerald H. Elkan Soil-–Water Interactions: Mechanisms and Applications, Shingo Iwata and Toshio Tabuchi with Benno P. Warkentin Soil Analysis: Modern Instrumental Techniques, Second Edition, edited by Keith A. Smith Soil Analysis: Physical Methods, edited by Keith A. Smith and Chris E. Mullins Growth and Mineral Nutrition of Field Crops, N. K. Fageria, V. C. Baligar, and Charles Allan Jones

Semiarid Lands and Deserts: Soil Resource and Reclamation, edited by J. Skujins Plant Roots: The Hidden Half, edited by Yoav Waisel, Amram Eshel, and Uzi Kafkafi Plant Biochemical Regulators, edited by Harold W. Gausman Maximizing Crop Yields, N. K. Fageria Transgenic Plants: Fundamentals and Applications, edited by Andrew Hiatt Soil Microbial Ecology: Applications in Agricultural and Environmental Management, edited by F. Blaine Metting, Jr. Principles of Soil Chemistry: Second Edition, Kim H. Tan Water Flow in Soils, edited by Tsuyoshi Miyazaki Handbook of Plant and Crop Stress, edited by Mohammad Pessarakli Genetic Improvement of Field Crops, edited by Gustavo A. Slafer Agricultural Field Experiments: Design and Analysis, Roger G. Petersen Environmental Soil Science, Kim H. Tan Mechanisms of Plant Growth and Improved Productivity: Modern Approaches, edited by Amarjit S. Basra Selenium in the Environment, edited by W. T. Frankenberger, Jr. and Sally Benson Plant–Environment Interactions, edited by Robert E. Wilkinson

Handbook of Plant and Crop Physiology, edited by Mohammad Pessarakli

Handbook of Phytoalexin Metabolism and Action, edited by M. Daniel and R. P. Purkayastha Soil–Water Interactions: Mechanisms and Applications, Second Edition, Revised and Expanded, Shingo Iwata, Toshio Tabuchi, and Benno P. Warkentin

Stored-Grain Ecosystems, edited by Digvir S. Jayas, Noel D. G. White, and William E. Muir

Agrochemicals from Natural Products, edited by C. R. A. Godfrey Seed Development and Germination, edited by Jaime Kigel and Gad Galili Nitrogen Fertilization in the Environment, edited by Peter Edward Bacon Phytohormones in Soils: Microbial Production and Function, William T. Frankenberger, Jr., and Muhammad Arshad Handbook of Weed Management Systems, edited by Albert E. Smith

Soil Sampling, Preparation, and Analysis, Kim H. Tan Soil Erosion, Conservation, and Rehabilitation, edited by Menachem Agassi

Plant Roots: The Hidden Half, Second Edition, Revised and Expanded, edited by Yoav Waisel, Amram Eshel, and Uzi Kafkafi Photoassimilate Distribution in Plants and Crops: Source–Sink Relationships, edited by Eli Zamski and Arthur A. Schaffer Mass Spectrometry of Soils, edited by Thomas W. Boutton and Shinichi Yamasaki Handbook of Photosynthesis, edited by Mohammad Pessarakli

Chemical and Isotopic Groundwater Hydrology: The Applied Approach, Second Edition,Revised and Expanded, Emanuel Mazor Fauna in Soil Ecosystems: Recycling Processes, Nutrient Fluxes, and Agricultural Production, edited by Gero Benckiser Soil and Plant Analysis in Sustainable Agriculture and Environment, edited by Teresa Hood and J. Benton Jones, Jr. Seeds Handbook: Biology, Production, Processing, and Storage, B. B. Desai, P. M. Kotecha, and D. K. Salunkhe Modern Soil Microbiology, edited by J. D. van Elsas, J. T. Trevors, and E. M. H. Wellington Growth and Mineral Nutrition of Field Crops: Second Edition, N. K. Fageria, V. C. Baligar, and Charles Allan Jones Fungal Pathogenesis in Plants and Crops: Molecular Biology and Host Defense Mechanisms, P. Vidhyasekaran Plant Pathogen Detection and Disease Diagnosis, P. Narayanasamy

Plant Pathogen Detection and Disease Diagnosis: Second Edition, Revised and Expanded, P. Narayanasamy

Handbook of Plant and Crop Physiology: Second Edition, Revised and Expanded, edited by Mohammad Pessarakli Environmental Chemistry of Arsenic, edited by William T. Frankenberger, Jr. Enzymes in the Environment: Activity, Ecology, and Applications, edited by Richard G. Burns and Richard P. Dick Plant Roots: The Hidden Half, Third Edition, Revised and Expanded, edited by Yoav Waisel, Amram Eshel, and Uzi Kafkafi Handbook of Plant Growth: pH as the Master Variable, edited by Zdenko Rengel Biological Control of Major Crop Plant Diseases edited by Samuel S. Gnanamanickam Pesticides in Agriculture and the Environment, edited by Willis B. Wheeler Mathematical Models of Crop Growth and Yield, , Allen R. Overman and Richard Scholtz Plant Biotechnology and Transgenic Plants, edited by Kirsi-Marja Oksman Caldentey and Wolfgang Barz Handbook of Postharvest Technology: Cereals, Fruits, Vegetables, Tea, and Spices, edited by Amalendu Chakraverty, Arun S. Mujumdar, G. S. Vijaya Raghavan, and Hosahalli S. Ramaswamy Handbook of Soil Acidity, edited by Zdenko Rengel Humic Matter in Soil and the Environment: Principles and Controversies, edited by Kim H. Tan Molecular Host Plant Resistance to Pests, edited by S. Sadasivam and B. Thayumanayan Soil and Environmental Analysis: Modern Instrumental Techniques, Third Edition, edited by Keith A. Smith and Malcolm S. Cresser Chemical and Isotopic Groundwater Hydrology, Third Edition, edited by Emanuel Mazor

Agricultural Systems Management: Optimizing Efficiency and Performance, edited by Robert M. Peart and W. David Shoup Physiology and Biotechnology Integration for Plant Breeding, edited by Henry T. Nguyen and Abraham Blum Global Water Dynamics: Shallow and Deep Groundwater: Petroleum Hydrology: Hydrothermal Fluids, and Landscaping, , edited by Emanuel Mazor Principles of Soil Physics, edited by Rattan Lal Seeds Handbook: Biology, Production, Processing, and Storage, Second Edition, Babasaheb B. Desai

Field Sampling: Principles and Practices in Environmental Analysis, edited by Alfred R. Conklin Sustainable Agriculture and the International Rice-Wheat System, edited by Rattan Lal, Peter R. Hobbs, Norman Uphoff, and David O. Hansen Plant Toxicology, Fourth Edition, edited by Bertold Hock and Erich F. Elstner Drought and Water Crises: Science, Technology, and Management Issues, edited by Donald A. Wilhite Soil Sampling, Preparation, and Analysis, Second Edition, Kim H. Tan Climate Change and Global Food Security, edited by Rattan Lal, Norman Uphoff, B. A. Stewart, and David O. Hansen Handbook of Photosynthesis, Second Edition, edited by Mohammad Pessarakli Environmental Soil-Landscape Modeling: Geographic Information Technologies and Pedometrics, edited by Sabine Grunwald Water Flow In Soils, Second Edition, Tsuyoshi Miyazaki Biological Approaches to Sustainable Soil Systems, edited by Norman Uphoff, Andrew S. Ball, Erick Fernandes, Hans Herren, Olivier Husson, Mark Laing, Cheryl Palm, Jules Pretty, Pedro Sanchez, Nteranya Sanginga, and Janice Thies Plant–Environment Interactions, Third Edition, edited by Bingru Huang Biodiversity In Agricultural Production Systems, edited by Gero Benckiser and Sylvia Schnell Organic Production and Use of Alternative Crops, Franc Bavec and Martina Bavec Handbook of Plant Nutrition, edited by Allen V. Barker and David J. Pilbeam

Handbook of

Plant

Nutrition

Edited by

Allen V. Barker

David J. Pilbeam

CRC is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business

Boca Raton London New York

Cover photo by Allen V. Barker.

CRC Press Taylor & Francis Group 6000 Broken Sound Parkway NW, Suite 300 Boca Raton, FL 33487‑ © 2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC CRC Press is an imprint of Taylor & Francis Group, an Informa business No claim to original U.S. Government works Printed in the United States of America on acid‑free paper 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 International Standard Book Number‑10: 0‑8247‑5904‑4 (Hardcover) International Standard Book Number‑13: 978‑0‑8247‑5904‑9 (Hardcover) This book contains information obtained from authentic and highly regarded sources. Reprinted material is quoted with permission, and sources are indicated. A wide variety of references are listed. Reasonable efforts have been made to publish reliable data and information, but the author and the publisher cannot assume responsibility for the validity of all materials or for the consequences of their use. No part of this book may be reprinted, reproduced, transmitted, or utilized in any form by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying, microfilming, and recording, or in any informa‑ tion storage or retrieval system, without written permission from the publishers. For permission to photocopy or use material electronically from this work, please access www.copyright.com (http:// www.copyright.com/) or contact the Copyright Clearance Center, Inc. (CCC) 222 Rosewood Drive, Danvers, MA 01923, 978‑750‑8400. CCC is a not‑for‑profit organization that provides licenses and registration for a variety of users. For orga‑ nizations that have been granted a photocopy license by the CCC, a separate system of payment has been arranged. Trademark Notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks, and are used only for identification and explanation without intent to infringe.

Library of Congress Cataloging‑in‑Publication Data Barker, Allen V., 1937‑ Handbook of plant nutrition / Allen V. Barker, David J. Pilbeam. p. cm. ‑‑ (Books in soils, plants, and the environment ; v. 117) Includes bibliographical references. ISBN 0‑8247‑5904‑

1. Plants‑‑Nutrition‑‑Handbooks, manuals, etc. I. Pilbeam, D. J. II. Title. III. Series. QK867.B29 2006 631.8‑‑dc22 2006044539

Visit the Taylor & Francis Web site at http://www.taylorandfrancis.com and the CRC Press Web site at http://www.crcpress.com

less use of chemical fertilizers and more use of alternative fertilizers. Attention to precision agri- culture, in which plant nutrition is controlled or monitored carefully, has grown in research and practice. All of these situations require knowledge of plant nutrition. The handbook is intended to be a practical reference work for anyone who needs to know the requirements of the world’s major crops for essential or beneficial elements. It will also give infor- mation on how to assess and govern the nutritional status of crops. It should be of use to farmers, agricultural advisers, soil scientists, and plant scientists.

Allen V. Barker Department of Plant, Soil, and Insect Sciences University of Massachusetts Amherst, Massachusetts

Elke Bloem Institute of Plant Nutrition and Soil Science Federal Agricultural Research Centre (FAL) Braunschweig, Germany

Patrick H. Brown Department of Plant Sciences University of California Davis, California

Gretchen M. Bryson Department of Plant, Soil, and Insect Sciences University of Massachusetts Amherst, Massachusetts

Lawrence E. Datnoff Plant Pathology Department University of Florida/IFAS Gainesville, Florida

Luit J. de Kok Laboratory of Plant Physiology University of Groningen Haren, The Netherlands

Khaled Drihem School of Biology University of Leeds Leeds, United Kingdom

Michael A. Dunn Department of Human Nutrition, Food and Animal Sciences University of Hawaii at Manoa Honolulu, Hawaii

John Gorham Arid Land Research Center Tottori University Tottori, Japan

and Centre for Arid Zone Studies and School of Biological Sciences University of Wales Bangor, United Kingdom

Robin D. Graham Discipline of Plant and Food Science School of Agriculture, Food and Wine University of Adelaide Adelaide, Australia

Umesh C. Gupta Crops and Livestock Research Centre Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada Charlottetown, Prince Edward Island, Canada

Russell L. Hamlin Coggins Farms and Produce Lake Park, Georgia

Silvia Haneklaus Institute of Plant Nutrition and Soil Science Federal Agricultural Research Centre (FAL) Braunschweig, Germany

Joseph R. Heckman Plant Biology and Pathology Department Rutgers University New Brunswick, New Jersey

N.V. Hue Department of Tropical Plant and Soil Sciences University of Hawaii at Manoa Honolulu, Hawaii

Julia M. Humphries Discipline of Plant and Food Science School of Agriculture, Food and Wine University of Adelaide Adelaide, Australia

Contributors

Section I Introduction ...................................................................................................................................... 1

Chapter 1 Introduction...................................................................................................................

Allen V. Barker and David J. Pilbeam

Section II Essential Elements––Macronutrients ........................................................................................... 19

Chapter 2 Nitrogen ......................................................................................................................

Allen V. Barker and Gretchen M. Bryson

Chapter 3 Phosphorus .................................................................................................................

Charles A. Sanchez

Chapter 4 Potassium ...................................................................................................................

Konrad Mengel

Chapter 5 Calcium ....................................................................................................................

David J. Pilbeam and Philip S. Morley

Chapter 6 Magnesium ...............................................................................................................

Donald J. Merhaut

Chapter 7 Sulfur .......................................................................................................................

Silvia Haneklaus, Elke Bloem, Ewald Schnug, Luit J. de Kok, and Ineke Stulen

Section III Essential Elements––Micronutrients .......................................................................................... 239

Chapter 8 Boron .......................................................................................................................

Umesh C. Gupta

Chapter 9 Chlorine ...................................................................................................................

Joseph R. Heckman

Chapter 10 Copper ....................................................................................................................

David E. Kopsell and Dean A. Kopsell

Contents

Chapter 11 Iron .........................................................................................................................

Volker Römheld and Miroslav Nikolic

Chapter 12 Manganese ............................................................................................................. Julia M. Humphries, James C.R. Stangoulis, and Robin D. Graham

Chapter 13 Molybdenum ..........................................................................................................

Russell L. Hamlin

Chapter 14 Nickel .....................................................................................................................

Patrick H. Brown

Chapter 15 Zinc ........................................................................................................................

J. Benton Storey

Section IV Beneficial Elements ...................................................................................................................... 437

Chapter 16 Aluminum ..............................................................................................................

Susan C. Miyasaka, N.V. Hue, and Michael A. Dunn

Chapter 17 Cobalt ..................................................................................................................... Geeta Talukder and Archana Sharma

Chapter 18 Selenium ................................................................................................................ Dean A. Kopsell and David E. Kopsell

Chapter 19 Silicon .................................................................................................................... George H. Snyder, Vladimir V. Matichenkov, and Lawrence E. Datnoff

Chapter 20 Sodium ................................................................................................................... John Gorham

Chapter 21 Vanadium ............................................................................................................... David J. Pilbeam and Khaled Drihem

Section V Conclusion .................................................................................................................................... 597

Chapter 22 Conclusion ............................................................................................................. Allen V. Barker and David J. Pilbeam

Index ..............................................................................................................................................

1

Introduction

Allen V. Barker

University of Massachusetts, Amherst, Massachusetts

David J. Pilbeam

University of Leeds, Leeds, United Kingdom

CONTENTS

1.1 Definitions ................................................................................................................................ 1.1.1 Plant Nutrient .............................................................................................................. 1.2 Diagnostic Criteria .................................................................................................................. 1.2.1 Visual Diagnosis .......................................................................................................... 1.2.2 Plant Analysis .............................................................................................................. 1.2.3 Quantitative Analysis .................................................................................................. 1.2.4 Tissue Testing .............................................................................................................. 1.2.5 Biochemical Tests ...................................................................................................... 1.2.6 Soil Tests .................................................................................................................... 1.3 Approaches in Research ........................................................................................................ References ........................................................................................................................................

1.1 DEFINITIONS

1.1.1 P LANT NUTRIENT

A plant nutrient is a chemical element that is essential for plant growth and reproduction. Essential element is a term often used to identify a plant nutrient. The term nutrient implies essentiality, so it is redundant to call these elements essential nutrients. Commonly, for an element to be a nutrient, it must fit certain criteria. The principal criterion is that the element must be required for a plant to complete its life cycle. The second criterion is that no other element substitutes fully for the ele- ment being considered as a nutrient. The third criterion is that all plants require the element. All the elements that have been identified as plant nutrients, however, do not fully meet these criteria, so, some debate occurs regarding the standards for classifying an element as a plant nutrient. Issues related to the identification of new nutrients are addressed in some of the chapters in this handbook. The first criterion, that the element is essential for a plant to complete its life cycle, has histor- ically been the one with which essentiality is established (1). This criterion includes the property that the element has a direct effect on plant growth and reproduction. In the absence of the essen- tial element or with severe deficiency, the plant will die before it completes the cycle from seed to seed. This requirement acknowledges that the element has a function in plant metabolism; that with short supply of the nutrient, abnormal growth or symptoms of deficiency will develop as a result of the disrupted metabolism; and that the plant may be able to complete its life cycle with restricted

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