¡Descarga Guía de estudio para el examen nacional "Comps" para obtención de licencia psicológica. y más Guías, Proyectos, Investigaciones en PDF de Psicología Clínica solo en Docsity!
ETHICS
Objectives: Most likely you will be presented with a situation/case and will be asked to discuss how you would handle this particular situation in an ethical way, justifying and discussing why you chose to do as you did. You should be knowledgeable in the following areas:
- The ethical obligation of a therapist to have a high level of self-awareness of their own personality, countertransference issues, and own needs. Professionals who work intimately with others have a responsibility to be committed to awareness of their own life issues Practitioners must be aware of their own needs, areas of unfinished business, personal conflicts, defenses, and vulnerabilities, and how these can influence their therapeutic work. Therapists do have their own personal needs, but these needs cannot assume priority or get in the way of a client’s growth The goals of therapy suffer when therapists with a strong need for approval focus on trying to win the acceptance, admiration, and even awe of their clients. Ethics state that I shall not do for others what they can readily do for themselves but rather, facilitate and support the doing. Likewise I shall not insist on doing what I perceive as good without reference to what the client perceives as good and necessary. Mental health professionals can and should be aware of their areas of denial and unresolved problems and conflicts When we are in denial of our own problems, we will be in a poor position to pay attention to the concerns of our clients, especially if they are similar to ours. Transference is the process whereby clients project onto their therapist past feelings or attitudes they had toward significant people in their lives (Client → Therapist) Transference is understood as having its origins in early childhood and constitutes a repetition of past material in the present Transference causes a distortion in the way clients perceive and react to the therapist Transference is not a catch-all concept, the clients feeling may be in the her-and-now and could reflect the style of the therapist Countertransference can be considered as any projections by the therapist that distort the way they perceive and react to a client (Therapist → client) This occurs when there is inappropriate affect, when clinicians respond in highly defensive ways, or when they lose their objectivity in a relationship because their own conflicts are triggered Ethically, therapists are expected to identify and deal with their reactions though supervision, consultation, or personal therapy so that their clients are not negatively affected by the therapist’s problem Counter transference can be either a constructive or destructive element in the therapeutic relationship. Examples include: o Being overprotective with a client o Treating clients in benign ways to avoid anger or other strong emotions o Rejecting a client o Needing constant reinforcement o Seeing yourself in your clients
o Developing sexual or romantic feelings towards a client o Giving advice to needy clients o Developing a social relationship with clients Countertransference can greatly benefit the therapeutic work if clinicians monitor their feeling during therapy sessions and use their responses as a source of understanding their clients and helping clients to understand themselves Countertransference becomes problematic when it is not recognized and monitored, and managed
- The signs of professional burnout and ways to prevent it. Therapists are vulnerable to the effects of stress; if stress is not adequately addressed, it can result in impaired professional competence Burnout is a state of physical, emotional, intellectual, and spiritual depletion characterized by feelings of helplessness and hopelessness. Long work hours, heavy administrative duties, and the perception of having little control over work activities can place practitioners at high risk for emotional exhaustion. The following are signs of therapist decay: o An absence of boundaries with clients o Excessive preoccupation with money and being successful o Living in isolated ways, both personally and professionally o Failing to recognize the personal impact of clients’ struggles o Resisting personal therapy when experiencing personal distress Impairment is the presence of a chronic illness or severe psychological depletions that is likely to prevent the professional from being able to deliver effective services and results in consistently functioning below acceptable practice standards. How to avoid burn out?
- How a therapist’s values can affect the counseling process and the therapeutic process, and when a therapist should refer a case to another counselor. Clinicians may not agree with the values of their clients, but they must respect the rights of their clients to hold a different set of values Therapists should not attempt to teach clients specific moral rules and values because doing so violates clients’ autonomy and prevents them from making their own choices Practitioners will inevitably incorporate certain value orientations into their therapeutic approaches and methods Because your values will significantly affect your work with clients, it is crucial for you to clarify your assumptions, core beliefs, and values, and the ways in which they influence the therapeutic process. Value imposition refers to counselors directly attempting to influence a client to adopt their counselor’s’ values, attitudes, beliefs, and behaviors. ACA A.4.b. Personal Values (2013) “Counselors are aware of—and avoid imposing—their own values, attitudes, beliefs and behaviors. Counselors respect the diversity of clients, trainees, and
which a practitioner provides adequate information so that a potential client can make an informed decision about participating in the professional relationship. Professionals have a responsibility to their clients to make reasonable disclosure of all significant facts, the nature of the procedure, and some of other more probable consequences and difficulties. Informed consent requires that the client understands the information presented, gives consent voluntarily, and is competent to give consent to treatment. The informed consent document should include: The therapeutic process, background of the therapist, cost involved in therapy, the length of therapy and termination, consultation with colleagues, interruptions in therapy, benefits and risks of treatment, alternatives to traditional therapy, tape-recording or video-recording sessions, and cliets’ right of access to their files, rights pertaining to diagnostic classifying, the nature and purpose of confidentiality.
- The dangers of a therapist fostering a client’s dependence, working outside the areas of their own competency, and of forming dual relationships. An ethical issues does arise when couselors encourage and prmote dependence on the part of their clients. Clinicians can foster dependence in their clients in subtle ways such as telling them what to do, allowing clients to view them as having more wisdom, or therapist s who have a need to be perceived in this way collude with their clients in keeping them dependent or by delaying termination to foster dependence for reasons such as needing more hours, more billing, or looking good to the agency. ACA C.2.a (2013) Counselors practice only within the boundaries of their competence, based on their education, training, supervised experience, state and national professional credentials, and appropriate professional experience. Whereas multicultural counseling competency is required across all counseling specialties, counselors gain knowledge, personal awareness, sensitivity, dispositions, and skills pertinent to being a culturally competent counselor in working with a diverse client population. When it becomes clear that a client’s counseling needs exceed our competence, we must either develop the competence necessary to effectively treat the client or refer this client to another professional who possesses the competence to meet this client’s counseling needs. From a legal standpoint, incompetent practitioners are vulnerable to malpractice suits and can be held legally responsible in a court of law. From an ethical perspective, competence is required of practitioners if they are to protect and serve their clients. The ethics codes caution professionals against any involvement with clients that might impair their judgment and objectivity, affect their ability to render effective services, or result in harm or exploitation to clients. When multiple relationship exploit clients, or have significant potential to harm clients, they are unethical. The legal implications pertaining to dual relationships depend on the nature of the relationship and whether the client suffers harm. The misuse of power, harming, or exploiting of a client is unethical and could result in a malpractice suit.
- Know the differences between the following terms: Confidentiality, Privileged Communication, and Privacy. Confidentiality: the protection of client information, identification, and communications between the therapist and the client and protects from disclosure to third parties Privileged communication is a legal concept that generally bars the disclosure of confidential communications in a legal proceeding. Privacy refers to the constitutional right of individuals to be left alone and to control their personal information.
- The general exceptions to the legal and ethical requirement that therapists keep client confidentiality. When the client requests a release of information When reimbursement or other legal rules require disclosure When clerical assistants handle confidential information, as in managed care When the counselor consults with experts or peers When the counselor is working under supervision When other mental health professionals request information and the client has given consent to share When other professions are involved in the treatment team and coordinate care When it its determined that the client is in danger to themselves When it is determined that the client is a danger to others When it is determined that there is a danger of child abuse When it is determined that there is a danger to elder abuse
- Know the issues surrounding the following landmark court cases: The Tarasoff Case, The Brandley Case, The Jablonski Case, and The Hedlund Case. The Tarasoff Case: Duty to warn. Tarasoff v. Regents of the University of California (1976). In this case, a University of California student names Prosenjit Poddar was seeing a psychologist at the university’s student health center because a young woman named Tatiana Tarasoff had spurned his affections. The psychologist, reasoning that Poddar was dangerous because of his pathological attachment to Tarasoff and because he intended to purchase a gun, notified the police both verbally and in writing. The police questioned Poddar and found him to be rational; they made Poddar promise to stay away from Tarasoff. Two month later, however, Poddar killed Tarasoff. When Tarasoff’s parents attempted to sue the University of California, health center staff members, and the police, the courts dismissed the case. The family appealed to the Supreme Curt of California, asserting that the defendants had a duty to warn Ms. Tarasoff or her family of the danger and that they should have persisted to ensure Poddar’s confinement. The court granted a rehearing. In their second ruling, the court released the police from liability without explanation and more broadly formulated the duty of therapists, imposing a duty to use reasonable care to protect third parties against dangers posed by patients. This imposed an affirmative duty on therapists to warn a potential victim of intended harm by the client, stating that the right to confidentiality ends when the public peril begins. The Bradley Case: The client was released even though he presented as a danger to a third party. The Georgia Supreme Court ruled that a physician has a duty to take reasonable care to prevent a potentially dangerous patient from inflicting harm to others.
procedure that could have been more helpful; the therapist failed to warn others about and protect them from a dangerous client; informed consent to treatment was not obtained or not documented, or the professional did not explain the possible consequences of the treatment Malpractice suits can usually be brought for the following reasons: o Failure to obtain or document informed consent o Client abandonment and premature termination o Sexual misconduct with a client o Marked departures from established therapeutic practices o Practicing beyond the scope of competency o Misdiagnosis o Repressed or false memory o Unhealthy transference relationships o Failure to control a dangerous client Risk management is the practice of focusing on the identification, evaluation, and treatment of problems that may injure clients and lead to filing an ethics complaint or malpractice actions Ways to manage malpractice or ethics risks include the following: o Become aware of local and state laws that pertain to your practice o Make use of treatment contracts that present clients with written information on confidentiality issues, reasons for contacting clients at home, fee structures, and payment plans, a policy on termination, and suicide provisions o Present information to your clients in a clear language o Document your assessment and decisions o Explain your diagnosis, treatment plan, and its risks and benefits o Inform clients of their right to terminate o Restrict your clients to those you are qualified to work with o Document everything o Develop clear and consistent policies and procedures for client records o Report any case of suspected child abuse, elder abuse, or dependent abuse o Evaluate your personal and professional boundaries o Seek consultation for engaging in multiple relationships o Be especially prudent about informed consent, documentation, and consultation when crossing boundaries in multiple relationships o Do not engage in sexual relationships with clients o Manage your appointments with clients so that they feel aware and informed, and cared for o Consult with colleagues o Develop a network of consultants o Get training on high risk clients o Consult when working with a suicidal client o Take steps to protect the client, third parties, and others o Obtain written consent from guardians of minors o Have a theoretical orientation that justifies the techniques you employ o Be clear about the limitations of psychotherapy
- The responsibilities a therapist has to other therapists and the unethical behavior of colleagues. Professionals have an obligation to deal with colleagues when they suspect unethical conduct Generally, the best way to proceed when you have concerns about the behavior of a colleague is to go to them directly, unless doing so would compromise a client’s confidentiality. In cases of egregious offenses, such as sexual exploitation of clients or general incompetence, the situation calls for going beyond informal measures. Depending on the nature of the complaint and the outcome of the discussion, reporting a colleague to a professional board would be one of several options open to you.
- The ACA ethical standards.
- The ethical implications when working with children, adolescents, women, gays, and lesbians and clients of another culture, the characteristics of the culturally skilled counselor, and the differences often found between Western and Eastern values. Psychologists are encouraged to recognize that as cultural beings, they may have attitudes and beliefs that can detrimentally influence their perceptions of and interactions with individuals who are ethnically and racially different from themselves Psychologists are encouraged to recognize the importance of multicultural sensitivity/responsiveness to, knowledge of, and understanding ethnically and racially different individuals Psychologists are encouraged to employ the constructs of multiculturalism and diversity in psychological education Culturally sensitive psychological researchers are encouraged to recognize the importance of conducting culture-centered and ethical psychological research among persons from ethnic, linguistic, and racial minority backgrounds Psychologists are encouraged to apply culturally appropriate skills in clinical and other applied psychological practices Psychologists are encouraged to use organizational change processes to support culturally informed organizational development and practices Psychologists are encouraged to use organizational change processes to support culturally informed organizational development and practices Writers in the field of multicultural counseling allege that most contemporary theories of therapy and therapeutic practices are grounded n western assumptions The strong individualistic bias of contemporary theories and the lack of emphasis on broader social contexts, such as families, groups, and communities, provide little of value for diverse minority groups Western therapeutic approaches tend to stress directness and assertiveness, yet in some cultures directness is perceived as rudeness and something to be avoided In many western cultures people talk more readily about their personal lives than do those in other cultures Many cultural expressions are subject to misinterpretation, including appropriate personal space, eye contact, handshaking, dress, formality of greeting, perspective on time
a. If not conflict → Make a decision b. If a conflict apparently exists ↓
- Gather Information (facts specific to the case, pertinent ethical and legal guidelines, consultation with colleagues and experts) ↓
- Secondary Appraisal of Ethical and Legal Considerations Involved a. If not conflict → Make a decision b. If a conflict apparently exists ↓
- Metaethical Deliberations Regarding the Relevance of Ethical Considerations a. If not conflict → Make a decision b. If a conflict apparently exists ↓
- Metaethical Deliberations Regarding the Resolution of the Ethical Dilemma ↓
- Tertiary Appraisal of Ethical Considerations—Generate Options and Estimate Consequences ↓
- Make a Decision ↓
- Document Rationale and Decision-Making Process (should be done throughout the process) GROUP PROCESSES
- The personal characteristics of effective group leaders. Poise, judgment, empathy, ego strength, freedom from excessive anxiety, a desire to help people, tolerance of frustration, imagination, intuition, perceptiveness, and ability to avoid self- preoccupation. A strong sense of self, understanding of personal biases
- Effective group-leadership skills. Encourage participation of group members Observe and identify group process events Attend to and acknowledge group member behavior Clarify and summarize group member statements Open and close group sessions Impart information in the group when necessary Model effective group leader behavior
Engage in appropriate self-disclosure Give and receive feedback in the group Ask open-ended questions in the group Empathize with group memb3er3s Confront group members’ behavior Help group member attribute meaning to the experience Help group members to integrate and apply learning Demonstrate ethical and professional standards of group practice Keep the group on task in accomplishing its goals
- The advantages and disadvantages of the co-leadership model. Advantages o Ease of handling the group in difficult situations o Uses of modeling o Feedback o Shared specialized knowledge o Pragmatic considerations Disadvantages o Lack of coordinated efforts o Two leader focused o Competition o Collusion
- The psychological risks in therapeutic groups. Members may experience some disruptions in their lives as result of their work in the group Group participants are often encouraged to be completely open. In this quest for self-revelation, privacy is sometimes surrendered The participants’ right not to explore certain issues or to stop at a certain point should be respected and members should not be coerced into participating Scapegoating is another potential hazard in group. Unchallenged projection and blaming can have dire effects on the target person Confrontation can be used or misused in groups, Harmful attacks on others should not be permitted. Even though a counselor may continue to stress the necessity not to discuss with outsiders what goes on in the group there is not guarantee that it will be respected.
- The ethical issues and guidelines for group leaders. With proper training in group work, competent practitioners will discover their limitations and recognize the kinds of groups they are competent to lead. Group workers must remain current and increase their knowledge and skills though activities such as continuing education, supervision, and participation in various personal and professional development activities
Group leaders should deal with the importance and reality of confidentiality during the pre- group screening process. When group leaders find or suspect that members have broken confidentiality, they need to address the matter quickly and directly with the group as a whole. In efforts to prevent breaks in confidentiality, leaders, need to reaffirm periodically to group members the importance of not discussing with others what occurs in the group
- The advantages and limitations of groups. Advantages o Instead of working one on one, there is a group dynamic that allows the recreation of situations that create conflict but are not processed in a safe environment o Seeing how others in the group deal with similar situations o Gaining a sense of belonging to a group of individuals o Hearing the opinions of other group members Disadvantages o Clashes of personalities o Some members of the group may have anti-social tendencies o Members of group are not held to ethical standards and may break confidentiality o Therapy is generalized o Some members may need more attention than others o Members may dominate the group o Until group dynamics are established there may be little to no trust
- Multicultural issues in groups and how this impacts the group as a whole. To work effectively with culturally diverse populations, group leaders must make three modifications in regard to traditional ways of working in a groups o They must understand what culture is o Group theory and technique must be modified and applied to different cultures in ways that are congruent with the beliefs and behaviors of those cultures o Group theory and techniques must be developed that acknowledge, explore, and use group member differences to facilitate change and growth. Myths about multicultural groups o Discussion on racial or cultural differences will offend group members o Groups can be truly homogeneous o Group member differences do not affect the process and outcome of task and psychoeducational groups o Group work theory is appropriate for all clients It is important for leaders to examine their own thoughts and feelings about people who are culturally different Leaders must sensitize themselves continually to cultural variables and individual differences so that they become more conscious of issues of culture that influence their own backgrounds Ways to increase cultural awareness in group members
o Consultation or group co-leadership with minority counselors already serving specific cultural groups o Participation in cultural immersion experiences o Actively taking inventory of the needs and issues of minority groups in their communities o Language training when possible, or at least learning correct pronunciation of names One dynamic that occurs in multicultural group counseling is the use of defense mechanisms, particularly splitting and projection identification used to protect against feelings of inadequacy and vulnerability. Leaders need to understand that non-verbal behavior is different from culture to culture
- The ways of increasing group cohesion. Members must share an image of the group Allow individuals to voice their concerns feely and fully Allow members to use art to express their feelings and thoughts more clearly Help members to build intimacy and shared values
- Know the legal safeguards for group practitioners.
- Practices that will prevent legal action (Association for Specialists in Group Work) a. Screening to reject inappropriate potential group members b. Spending extra time at the beginning of the first group session to discuss group rules and group members’ responsibilities c. Following the ethical codes of professional organizations to which one belongs d. Practicing only those theories and techniques in which one has actual expertise e. Obtaining consent or contracts in writing from members f. Warning members about the importance of confidentiality and the exceptions in which member confidentiality will have to be broke g. Staying abreast of recent research, theory, and practice techniques within one’s specialty h. Empowering members to evaluate their own progress and be in charge of their own progress i. Obtaining regular peer supervision of one’s work j. Following billing regulations and record-keeping practices to the letter of the law
- Group norms that will help facilitate the group process. Norms are expectations about group members behaviors that should or should not take place Group norms regulate the performance of the group as an organized unit Changes in outlook and attitude will bring about a sense of belonging and groupness Developing a sense of identification as a group Dealing with immediate feelings and interactions as existential variables Developing feelings of hope Helping the members to work together in a spirit of cooperation Member learn to collaborate Developing group cohesion
Confront constructively. Make sure your positive intentions are clear at the start to minimize the possibility that your comments may be interpreted as blaming, shaming, or punishing Confront with acceptance and trust. Assume that the other person’s intentions are good even if his or her actions are problematic. Confront clearly. Report what you actually observe, what emotions you feel or sense that others feel, and what you conclude would be a good next step for the person you’re confronting
- The criteria for selection of group members. Should be individuals who are likely to benefit from the experience Should be those who have specific goals in mind Who are not afraid of what the group will do Who are comfortable in their roles and sensitive to their surroundings Individuals who are not likely to contribute to the growth of the group should not participate Individuals who lack personal maturity should be excluded Exclude individuals who are extremely hostile, self-centered, unmotivated, crisis oriented, or mentally unbalanced as well as those who are unable or unwilling to self-disclose, express feelings, or tolerate anxiety Exclude members who are either too different or too similar to other potential group members as well as extremely heterogeneous groups
- How to write a proposal and plan to form a group. Steps in forming a group o Develop a rationale for the group o Decide on a theoretical format o Weight practical considerations o Publicize the group o Screening and pre-training o Selecting group members o Selecting group leaders Proposal should include the following items o The type of group that will be conducted o Rational, goals, and objectives of the group o Rights and expectations of group members o Group leader names, degrees, professional and personal background and experiences and qualifications for leading groups o Basic ground rules o Topics for the group
- The developmental characteristics of groups in the initial stage, the transition stage, the working stage, and the ending stage of a group and how to promote growth in each stage. Initial stage
o Joining, requires that leaders and members exert some effort to meet and find out more about each other. Using icebreakers to promote communication, engaging in activities and helping group members get acquainted o Linking is the process of connecting persons with one another by pointing out to them what they share in common o Cutting off, used to make sure that new material is not introduced too late and to avoid others monopolizing the group o Drawing out, the leader purposefully asks more silent members to speak and share o Clarifying purpose, used to keep members on topic and help them understand what the topic is being discussed for. Transition stage o Storming, a time of conflict and anxiety when the group moves from primary tension, awkwardness about being in a strange situation, to secondary tension (intragroup conflict). It is important for the leader to help group members recognize and deal with their conflict and any anxiety and resistance associated with it. The use of a process observer to give feedback on interpersonal and interactive process helps the group grow during this stage. Problem solving and conflict resolution is also helpful. Another technique is leveling in which members are encourage to interact freely and evenly. The teacher draws out members who are under participating and helps members who are over participating understand their impact on the group Norming. The feeling of being a group, developing an identity, groupness, and cohesiveness o During the norming stage, several important changes occur in peer relationship in such areas as outlook and attitude. This results in learning, insights, and feelings of support and acceptance. o Identification is a normal developmental process in which individuals see themselves as being similar to each other o During this stage it is important for members to deal with immediate feelings and interaction. The group leader can guide members through this process so that members experience their own feelings and growth. o Experiencing hopes on both a cognitive and emotional level o Cooperation occurs when group members work together for a common purpose o Collaboration works together with cooperation as members help each other o Cohesion, a central process to the success of the group o The group leader can encourage growth of the group through actions such as promoting norming, supporting the members, empathizing, facilitating, and proper self-disclosure Working stage. In most groups there appears to be genuine concern on a deep personal level by members for one another. The group leader encourages peer relationships in which group cohesion develops. This can be done with member self-disclosure as well as the leaders o Team work and team building during the working stage can be encouraged with such processes as team building exercises, team player inventory, and general teamwork. o The team leader must be on the lookout for racial and gender issues, group collusions involving subgroups. o Working groups have members that trust each other and the leader, goals are clear and specific, there is a sense of inclusion on all members, communication is open, and the
The major difference between school and community centered counseling is the homogenous nature of the community group One general guideline is that the younger the children the shorter the session and the smaller the group In regard to age, a general rule of thumb is to group children with those who are within about 1 chronological year of each other
- The unique characteristics of groups for adolescents. Developmental psychoeducation groups usually focus on common concerns of young people, such as identity, sexuality, self-management, self-advocacy, depression, parents, peer relationships, career goals, and educational or institutional problems Non-developmental counseling and psychotherapy groups tend to concentrate more on concerns adolescents have with adults and society, such as drug or alcohol use, school problems, or deviant behavior Several constructive ways of handling participants’ negative feelings and resistance are: o Meet with these adolescents individually before the group starts o Work with the resistance that uncooperative adolescents bring rather than fighting it o Respond to adolescents’ sarcasm or silence with honest, firm, and caring statements Adolescents group sessions should last 60 to 90 minutes The number of meetings is usually determined by the semester schedule Gender inclusion will be determined by the issue that is being explored In running mixed-gender groups, especially if the focus is on social relationships and dating, it may be necessary for group leaders to develop methods to get young adolescents males involved so that they will get the maximum benefit from the experience The role of the leader is multidimensional. In addition to keeping up with the interpersonal and intrapersonal dynamics of group members, leaders must be extremely self-aware. Problems that can be encountered include: o Outright disruptiveness o Hesitancy to engage with others o Polarization o Monopolizing o Inappropriate risk taking o Over activity or giddiness
- The unique characteristics of groups for adults. Counseling groups are used for exploring the personal issues of adulthood and for helping adults deal with transitions relevant to other life-cycle changes. Groups can be used for team building and the production of services, or they can be psychoeducational in nature and developed to accomplishing a goal for a special cause Strengths of using groups with adults o Cost savings o Effectiveness o Nonproductive behavior may be altered or eliminated through group work with adults
o Adults may be motivated to work on concerns with others and may also have an idea of outcomes they would like to achieve Limitations o Scheduling o Passive-aggressive behavior of some members o Screening and assembling group members who have a common focus
- The unique characteristics of groups for the elderly. Types of groups include psychoeducational and task/work groups, counseling and psychotherapy groups Most groups for older adults are conducted on an outpatient or outreach basis, but sometimes they are in an institutional setting Strengths for older adults groups o Group members become more aware of their needs, commonalities, unique traits, and possibilities, through sharing in a group o They are able to find support for and resolution to their problems and concerns o Belonging to a group assists participants in realizing that they are not alone in their issues o It gives members an opportunity to try out different responses and initiate new behaviors o Group membership involves the process of formal and applied learning o Groups for older adults can also enhance self-concept o Groups provide a series of check and balances Limitations o Groups for older adults are labor intensive o They require leaders to have specialized skills that may be anxiety producing at best o Leaders and members have to face real loss as death of a member can occur o Sometimes leaders and members may face the prospect of having members be caretakers of other members
- The seven types of processes that frequently occur in groups. Group processes include: the here-and-now, how the group is functioning, relationships and interactions with a leader, reaction, responses, feelings, and process exists at both a micro and macro level
- Factors that affect group processes Factors that influence group dynamics includ3e the social status of participants, their assigned or adopted roles, and patterns of communication and dominance that develop within the group Harmony – conflict and tension varies from time to time Communication – sometimes it is good, at other times it is a non-existent Commitment to group’s goals
