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POLITICAL SCIENCE
PRELIMS
SECTION - A
1. POLITICAL SCIENCE: Nature and scope of the discipline, relationship with
allied disciplines like history, economics, philosophy, sociology, and psychology.
2. MEANING OF POLITICS: Approaches to study of politics.
3. KEY CONCEPTS: State, society, sovereignty, power, citizenship, nation,
global order and imperialism.
chapter 1 political theory: nature and
significance
Systematic reflection on politics, the nature and purpose of government and political institutions, involving both to understand them and if necessary, how to change them, is quite old. Political activity is an activity concerned with the management of man’s collective life through the state. From classical period onwards, political speculation has been about: how fundamental political activity is; how it provides the groundwork for human civilization which distinguishes man from all other living creatures; and to inquire into the basic problem of ‘how to live together’ in a community because living together is necessitated by human nature and forms the core of individual life.
Political theory seeks to understand, explain and analyse the political phenomena and prescribe ways and means to rectify the shortcomings. Political theory is a complex subject. This is because in the Western tradition, it is at least 2300 years old and has been attended to by philosophers, theologians, kings, economists, sociologists, popes and others. The number of political theorists is very large, and the interests and commitments of those engaged in this field have been so different that we are faced with the difficult task of answering a simple question: What is political theory? Moreover, because of the diversity and changes in the socio-economic circumstances, there have been substantial changes both in the subject matter of political theory and the methods of studying it.
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For the purpose of study, political theory is divided into distinct streams such as classical, modern, empirical etc. While the classical political theory was dominated by philosophy and
dealt with the description, explanation, prescription and evaluation of the political phenomena; empirical political theory claimed to be a science and has been primarily concerned with the description and explanation of the political reality. Of late, contemporary political theory has tried to blend the theoretical and practical aspects. We shall talk in detail on this subject in the course of this chapter.
WHAT IS POLITICAL THEORY?
At the most general level, political theory is ‘a body of knowledge related to the phenomenon of the state’. While ‘theory’ refers to ‘a systematic knowledge’, ‘political’ refers to ‘matters of public concern’. According to David Held, political theory is a ‘network of concepts and generalizations about political life involving ideas, assumptions and statements about the nature, purpose and key features of government, state and society, and about the political capabilities of human beings’1. Andrew Hacker defines it as ‘a combination of a disinterested search for the principles of good state and good society on the one hand, and a disinterested search for knowledge of political and social reality on the other’.2 Another writer, George Catlin expresses almost the same views. He says, ‘political theory includes political science and political philosophy. While science refers to the phenomena of control in many forms over all the process of whole social field... It is concerned with means; political philosophy is concerned with the end or final value, when man asks ‘what is the national good’ or ‘what is good society’.3 Again, according to W.C. Coker, ‘When political government and its forms and activities are studied not simply as facts to be described and compared or judged in reference to their immediate and temporary effects, but as facts to be understood and appraised in relation to the constants needs, desires and opinions of men, then we have political theory’.4 We can sum up the meaning of political theory by referring to the comprehensive definition given by Gould and Kolb who say that it is ‘a sub-field of political science which includes: i) political philosophy—a moral theory of politics and a historical study of political ideas, ii) a scientific criterion, iii) a linguistic analysis of political ideas, iv) the discovery and systematic development of generalizations about political
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behaviour’.
On the basis of the above definitions, we can conclude that political theory is concerned with the study of the phenomena of the state both in philosophical as well as empirical terms. It not only involves explanation, description and prescription regarding the state and political institutions but also evaluation of their moral philosophical purpose. It is not only concerned with what the state is but also what it ought to be. According to Weinstein, political theory can be viewed as an activity which involves posing questions, developing responses to those questions and creating imaginative perspectives on the public life of human beings.6 It has been probing into questions like: nature and purpose of the state; why one should prefer a kind of state than the other; what the political organization aims at; by what criteria its ends, its methods and its achievements should be judged; what is the relation between state and the individual. Political theory has been engaged in these age old questions from Plato onwards because it is concerned with the fate of man which depends upon his ability to create a kind of political community in which rulers and
certain universal issues in the political life of man such as nature and purpose of the political organisation, basis of political authority, nature of rights, liberty, equality, justice etc. The distinction between political philosophy and political theory is explained by the fact that whereas a political philosopher is a political theorist, but a political theorist may not necessarily be a political philosopher.9 For example, David Easton is an eminent
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political theorist but is not considered a political philosopher. Though theory deals with the same issues as political philosophy, it can explain them both from philosophical as well as empirical points of view. In other words, while political philosophy is abstract or speculative, political theory can be both normative and empirical. A political theorist is as much interested in explaining the nature and purpose of the state as in describing the realities of political behaviour, the actual relations between state and citizens, and the role of power in the society. As has been pointed out by Arnold Bretch, philosophical explanations are theories too, but they are non- scientific.10 Political theory is concerned both with political institutions and the ideas and aspirations that form the basis of those institutions. However, we must not forget that though we can analytically distinguish between philosophy and theory, yet if political theory is separated from political philosophy, its meaning will appear distorted and it will prove barren and irrelevant. Theory must be supplemented by philosophy.
political theory and political science
As a discipline, political science is much more comprehensive and includes different forms of speculation in politics such as political thought, political theory, political philosophy, political ideology, institutional or structural framework, comparative politics, public administration, international law and organizations etc. With the rise of political science as a separate discipline, political theory was made one of its subfields. However, when used specifically with emphasis on ‘science’ as distinct from ‘theory’, political science refers to the study of politics by the use of scientific methods in contrast to political philosophy which is free to follow intuition. ‘Political theory when opposed to political philosophy is political science’. Political science is concerned with describing and explaining the realities of political behaviour, generalizations about man and political institutions on empirical evidence, and the role of power in the society. Political theory, on the other hand, is not only concerned about the behavioural study of the political phenomena from empirical point of view but also prescribing the goals which states, governments, societies and citizens ought to pursue. Political theory also aims to generalize about the right conduct in the political life and about the legitimate use of power.
Thus political theory is neither pure thought, nor philosophy,
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nor science. While it draws heavily from all of them, yet it is distinct from them. Contemporary political theory is trying to attempt a synthesis between political philosophy and political science.
characteristics of political theory
Political theory is an intellectual and moral creation of man. Generally it is the speculation of a single individual who is attempting to offer us a theoretical explanation of the political reality i.e. the phenomena of the state. Every theory by its very nature is an explanation, built upon certain hypothesis which may be valid (or not) and which are always open to criticism. So what we find in political theory is a number of attempts made by thinkers from Plato onwards to unravel the mysteries of man’s political life. They have given so many modes of explanations which may or may not convince us but to which we cannot pass any final judgement. Political theory is largely an attempt to seek the truth as the thinker sees it and it is usually expressed through a treatise such as Plato’s Republic, Aristotle’s Politics, Hobb’es’ Leviathan, or Rawls’ A Theory of Justice.
Secondly, political theory contains an explanation of man, society and history. It probes the nature of man and society: how a society is made up and how it works; what are the important elements; what are the sources of conflict in the society and how they can be resolved.
Thirdly, political theory is discipline based. It means that though the phenomena which the theorist seeks to explain remains the same i.e. the state, the writer may be a philosopher, historian, economist, theologian or a sociologist. Thus we are confronted by a variety of political theories, each distinguished by a discipline on which it is based.
Fourthly, political theory not only comprehends and explains the social and political reality but is also actively engaged in hastening the process of history. The task of political theory is not only to understand and explain but also to device ways and means to change the society. As Laski put it, the task is not merely one of description of what it is but also a prescription of what ought to be.12 Thus political theory recommends agencies of action as well as means of reform, revolution or conservation. It contains programmes that embody both ends and means. Political
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theory plays a double role: to understand society and to suggest how to remove the imperfections.
And lastly, political theory also includes political ideology. Ideology in simple language means ‘a system of beliefs, values and ideals by which people allow themselves to be governed’. We find a number of ideologies in the modern world such as liberalism, Marxism, socialism etc. All political theories from Plato to date reflect a distinct ideology of the writer. Political theory in the form of political ideology includes a system of political values, institutions and practices which a society has adopted as its ideal. For example, all political theories adopted by Western Europe and America have been dominated by liberalism and the theories accepted by China and erstwhile USSR were influenced by a particular brand of Marxism. Each brand of theory or ideology in this sense claims for itself the attributes of universality and compels others to accept it, leading to what is generally known as ‘ideological conflicts’.
In short, political theory is associated with the explanation and evaluation of the political phenomena and this phenomena can be examined as a statement of ideas and ideals, as an agent of socio-economic change, and as an ideology.
political institutions appropriate for its realization, to what end the state is directed and how it should be constituted to achieve those ends. The
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significance of political theory lies in providing the moral criteria that ought to be used to judge the ethical worth of a political state and to propose alternative political arrangements and practices likely to meet the moral standards. The importance of political theory lies in providing i) a description of the political phenomena, ii) a non-scientific (based upon philosophy or religion) or a scientific (based upon empirical studies) explanation, iii) proposals for the selection of political goals and political action, and iv) moral judgement. Examples of such a political theory can be found in Plato’s Republic, or Rawls’ A Theory of Justice or Nozic’s Anarchy, State and Utopia.
As mentioned earlier, the fundamental question facing human beings has been ‘how to live together’. Politics is an activity engaged with the management of the collective affairs of society. The significance of theory lies in evolving various doctrines and approaches regarding the nature and purpose of the state, the bases of political authority, vision of an ideal state, best form of government, relations between the state and the individual and basic issues such as rights, liberty, equality, property, justice etc. Again what has become important in our times is to explain the inter-relation between one concept and another such as the relationship between liberty and equality, equality and property, justice and property. This is as important as peace, order, harmony-stability and unity in the society. In fact peace and harmony in the society very much depends upon how we interpret and implement the values of liberty, equality and justice etc.
Contemporary states face a number of problems such as poverty, over-population, corruption, racial and ethnic tensions, environment pollution etc., conflicts among individuals, groups as well as nations. The task of political theory is to study and analyse more profoundly than others, the immediate and potential problems of political life of the society and to supply the practical politician with an alternative course of action, the consequences of which have been fully thought of. According to David Held, the task of political theorist is really demanding because in the absence of systematic study, there is a danger that politics will be left to the ignorant and self-seeking people who only want to pursue it as ‘power.
In short, the significance of political theory lies in the fact that it provides systematic thinking about the nature and purpose of
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state and government. It helps us to establish a correlation between ideals and the socio-political phenomena. It makes the individual aware of his rights and duties in the society. It helps us to understand the nature or’ the socio-economic system and its problems like poverty, violence, corruption, ethnicity etc. Since the task of political theory is not only to understand and explain the social reality but also to change it, political theory helps us to evolve ways and means to change society either through reform or revolution. When political theory performs its function
well, it is one of the most important weapons of struggle for the advancement of humanity. To imbube people with correct theories may make them choose their goals and means correctly so as to avoid the roads that end in disappointment.
MAJOR SCHOOLS OF POLITICAL THEORY
As mentioned above, there is considerable diversity in political theory. Political theory in the western world is a continuous dialogue extended over time. Broadly speaking, although there is more or less a continuity regarding the subject matter of political theory, yet the approaches to its study have been changing during the past 2000 years. We shall now consider some major schools which have helped in the development of certain key concepts of political theory. These are:
- i. Classical Political Theory
- ii. Liberal Political Theory
- iii. Marxist Political Theory
- iv. Empirical-Scientific Political Theory
- v. Contemporary Political Theory
classical political theory
Classical political theory starts from 6th century B.C. and covers the political ideas of a large number of Greek, Roman and Christian thinkers and philosophers. Plato and Aristotle are the two great giants of the classical period who had enormous influence in their own times and on later thinking. Classical political theory included i) politics, ii) the idea of theory, and iii) the practice of philosophy. Politics referred to participation in the public affairs, theory referred to the systematic knowledge gained through observation, and philosophy referred to the quest for reliable knowledge - knowledge which would enable men to become wiser in the conduct of collective
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life. Thus political theory was a ‘systematic inquiry to acquire reliable knowledge about matters concerning public affairs’
Classical political theory has certain specific characteristics. Firstly, it was dominated by philosophy. The great philosophers such as Plato, Aristotle were great because of the comprehensiveness and scope of their thought. They were more than political thinkers. The dimensions of political theory included description, explanation, prescription and evaluation. Secondly, there was no clear distinction between philosophical, theological and political issues. Political theory was not an autonomous subject as it is today. Thirdly, political theory was concerned with probing into issues, asking important questions and serving as a sort of conscience keeper of politics. Fourthly, classical tradition believed that political theory dealt with the political whole - the theory must be all-comprehensive and all-inclusive. It included ruling, warfare, religious practices, economic problems or relations between the classes and also beliefs such as God, justice, equality etc. The quest for an absolutely best form of government was also an important preoccupation of classical political theory. Fifthly, since classical tradition believed
Since man and his rights exist prior to the establishment of state, these cannot be bargained away when the
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state is established.
Fourthly,-the new theory declared that state is not a natural institution but comes into existence by mutual consent for the sole purpose of preserving and protecting the individual rights, The relation between state and the individual is contractual and when the terms of the contract are violated, individuals not only the right but the responsibility to revolt and establish a new government. The state was not a natural institution as claimed by classical political theory but a machine devised by men for certain specific purposes such as law, order, protection, justice, and preservation of individual rights. The state is useful to man but he is the master. Social control is best secured by law rather than by command - the law which was conceived as being the product of individual will and the embodiment of reason.
Fifthly, the new political theory dismissed the idea of common good and an organic community. Instead it gave the idea that ‘government that governs’ the least is the best’ and the only genuine entity is the Individual. Political theory during this period was not searching for an Ideal State or a Utopia but was preoccupied with freeing the individual from the social and economic restraints and from the tyrannical and non-representative governments. In this context, it redefined the concept of state, relations between the individual and the state, and developed the concepts of rights liberty, equality, property, justice and democracy for the individual’
marxist political theory
Liberal-individualistic political theory was challenged by Marx, Engles and their subsequent followers in the later half nineteenth century by their ‘scientific socialism’. While socialism extends back far beyond Marx’s time, it was he who brought together many ideas about the ills of society and gave them a great sense of urgency and relevancy. No political theory can ignore the study of Marxist history, politics, society and economics. The knowledge of Marxism has put us in a better position to analyse the socio, economic developments. Marxism introduced a new concept of philosophy conceived as a way to the liberation of mankind. The task of knowledge, according to Marx, is not only to understand the world but also to change the material conditions of human life. He insisted that the salvation is to be found by man in this
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world itself and it laid in the revolutionary reconstitution of the present society and the establishment of a socialist society. His complaint against liberal capitalism was that it was a civilization of property, inequality and family fortune for a few and most degrading conditions for the vast number of people. Socialism was an attempt to secure the necessary, if not sufficient, conditions for the realization of emancipation of mankind. It is the establishment of a society on rational basis—a society in which ‘man shall not be exploited by man’, a society in which men will have the full opportunity to develop their potentialities and personality, a classless and
stateless society in which ‘the free development of each shall be the condition for the free development of all’.
Marxist political theory is a theory of social change and revolutionary reconstitution of society. In this context, Marxism consists of three inter-related elements: i) An examination and critique of the present and past societies. This is known as Dialectical materialism and historical materialism; ii) the notion of an alternative model against a society based upon exploitation and divided among classes. The new society is based on the common ownership of the means of production in which human potential will be allowed to freely develop its manifold facets. Such a society will be classless and stateless; iii) how to being about such a society’.16 Though there was a general agreement that capitalist system was unstable and crisis-ridden but the advent of socialism required a revolutionary action by the proletariat, whose growing impoverishment will lead to revolution, and establishment of a socialist state and society.
The central themes of Marxist political theory are mode of production, class division, class struggle, property relations, revolution and state as an instrument of class domination. Marxism also examined the nature of rights, liberty, equality, justice and democracy but came to the conclusion that in a class divided society, they are the prerogatives of the propertied class. Real liberty and equality can be achieved only in a classless and stateless society. Thus whereas liberal political theory was associated with the establishment of modern liberal capitalist democratic state, Marxist political theory preoccupied itself with the establishment of a socialist state through revolutionary action.
Marxism as the economic, social and political theory and practice originating in the works of Marx and Engles, has been enriched
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by a number of revolutionaries, philosophers, academicians and politicians. It has also been subject to a variety of interpretations. In the twentieth century, the prominent contributors to the Marxist thought have been Lenin, Bukharin, Stalin, Rose Luxemburg, Gramsci, Lukacs, Austro- Marxists, the Frankfurt school, Herbert Marcuse, the New Left theorists, Euro-communists, Mao Tse Tung and host of others. Up to the first world war, Marxism was highly deterministic and represented a philosophy of socio-political changes which culminated in the Russian revolution. However, during the inter-war period and the post-second world war, Marxism developed more as a critique of present socio-economic and cultural conditions than a philosophy of revolutionary action. Known as contemporary Marxism, it has been more concerned with the problems of superstructure, culture, art, aesthetics, ideology, alienation etc.
empirical-scientific political theory
There is another kind of political theory developed in America popularly known as the Empirical-Scientific political theory. The study of political theory through scientific method (instead of philosophical) and based upon facts (rather than on values) has long history but the credit for making significant developments in this connection goes to the American social scientists. In the early twentieth century, Max Weber, Graham Wallas and Bentley gave an
again the revival of normative political theory. This new revival is termed as contemporary political theory.
contemporary political theory
Since 1970s, there has been a revival of interest in political theory in USA, Europe and other parts of the world. At the heart of this renaissance has been the emerging clash of values on the one hand and the changes in the humanities and social sciences, on the other. Moreover, the passing away of the shadows of second world war, reemergence of Europe, and crisis in the ideologies of socialism and Marxism brought about a new fluidity in political ideologies. Whether it is Marxism or socialism, liberalism or democracy - all stand challenged and new powerful social movements are seeking to redraw the issues in political theory.
During the era of domination of behaviouralism, political theory was overpowered by political science. Theory was denied the status of a legitimate form of knowledge and inquiry. Though the hold of empiricism did not last long, yet it left an enduring legacy in the development of political and social sciences particularly in North America in the form of ‘scienticism’.
The encouragement for the regeneration of political theory came from many sources. While a number of thinkers (such as Thomas Kuhn) challenged the whole model of what is science, there were others who felt that there are distinctive problems of understanding the social sciences and social issues which could not be grasped by the model of a unified science. This is because of two factors: Firstly, the object of social sciences is the self-interpreting social being and different thinkers interpret the social issues differently. Secondly, political theory cannot be limited to a systematic account of politics; it must also perform its critical role, i.e., its capacity to offer an account of politics which transcends those of lay men. As a result of the great debates, a number of important innovations in the study of political theory followed. Though it is not possible to give a detailed account of these developments, a few distinctive features of the contemporary political theory can be summerized as follows:
- An important feature of empirical theory was its break with history. Contemporary political theorists believe that political theory must not be disassociated from history. Political theory has once
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again been renewed as history of political thought.
- All knowledge about human activities involves interpretation and the interpretation can lead to different conclusions. Hence the idea of political theory being neutral and value-free is wrong.
- Political understanding cannot escape the history of tradition. Knowledge is a part of the tradition and the process of understanding aspects of the world contributes to our self- understanding. However, the process of self-understanding is never complete. ‘History does not
belong to us but we belong to History’. There is no final truth. As such there can be no such thing as ‘the only correct or the final’ understanding of the political phenomena. The meaning of a text on political theory is always open to further interrelations from new perspectives.
- Political theory is concerned with conceptual analysis. This involves seeing political theory as a systematic reflection upon the meaning of the key terms and concepts like sovereignty, democracy, right, liberty, justice etc.
- There is a revival of normative element. Contemporary political theory is concerned with the systematic elaboration of the underlying structure of our moral and political activities, as well as examination and reconstruction of the principal political values such as justice, liberty, common good, community living etc.
- Theory is concerned with both abstract theoretical questions and particular political issues. This is due to the belief that consideration of political concepts without detailed examination of the condition of their realization may not be able to bring out the actual meaning of the concept. Political theory should be problem-oriented and should probe issues like democracy, market, equal opportunities in such contexts. Political theory is a theoretical aspect of political science, trying to construct a theory on the basis of observation.
In short, according to David Held, contemporary political theory involves four distinct tasks: Firstly, it is philosophical, i.e. it is concerned with the normative and conceptual framework; secondly, it is empirical, i.e., it is concerned with the problem of understanding and explanation of the concepts; thirdly, it is historical, i.e., it is concerned with the examination of the key concepts of political
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theory in historical context; and finally, it is strategic, i.e. it is concerned with an assessment of the feasibility of moving from where we are to where we might likely to be. It is only through the combination of these elements that the central problems of political theory can be solved.
CONCLUSION
Political theory is a never ending dialogue. Speculation on politics will continue because it relates to the life and values by which men live and die. The goal of theory is to enhance our understanding of the social reality and create conditions for good life. In this context, both classical and empirical theories need to be synthesized. Political theory cannot be based purely either on philosophy or science. All issues raised by philosophy must be examined within modes of inquiry at empirical level. Conversely, the normative issues raised by political science cannot be evaded. For example, the meaning of justice, equality or freedom cannot be explained by science. Similarly, the problems of our times - whether they are racial and ethnic tensions and bigotry, overpopulation, unemployment, decaying cities, corruption, conflicts between the nations - are such that we need every available brain to work for their solution. While the political scientists produce more comprehensive explanation of how and why things happen in the world of politics, the task of political philosopher is to relate this knowledge with the big
Controversy Regarding Nomenclature
Before starting the study of politics, it is essential to understand that, normally, the meaning of politics, political science and political philosophy is the same because the main part of the subject matter of them all is the same. In spite of all this similarity, there is a lot of difference among the three. The fact is that the Greek philosophers called the study of this branch of human knowledge 'polities', though, at that time, its meaning was limited. But, when the small Greek city-states started changing into the present nation-states, politics began to be studied as political science and the nation-state became its subject matter. And, when the philosophical aspect of the state was studied, it was called political philosophy. These days, it is again being studied as politics because it is now admitted that the subject matter of politics is very broad-based, and the subject matters of political science and political philosophy are included in it. The differences of all the three are given below:
- Study of State and Government in Political Science. The study of politics as political science started after the rise of nation-states. With the change in the development and nature of the state the political thinkers thought it more proper to use the word political science, in place of politics, for the study of origin, development and aims of the state. Henceforth political science got a broader base instead of the idea of limited study of the city-state designed by the Greek philosophers. Gettell connected the study of past, present and future of the state with political science. According to Demock political science is concerned with state and its instrument— government. Paul Janet says that political science deals with "foundations of the state and the principles of government."
- Political Philosophy, mainly theoretical and philosophical. Many writers use the name Political Philosophy instead of Political Science or Politics because they lay more emphasis on the philosophical aspect in its study. Ideal is their aim. Their subject matter is the origin of state, the position of man before the state came into being and the aims of the state etc. In it, there is neither any place for scientific experiments nor is the behaviour of the individual studied. In spite of it, one shall have to admit that without theory or philosophy, the study of behaviour will be partial and incomplete. Therefore, the study of political philosophy is inevitable for a student of politics.
- The scope of politics, very broad-based. Politics does not only include
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state or government, which is the subject matter of political science nor theory or philosophy of state or government which is the subject matter of political philosophy, but it also includes subject matter beyond state which is studied in it. We know that there are various topics which are out of the scope of political science which have, thus far, been neglected. Today, it is felt that the study of the topics, which are concerned with politics directly, is essential, e.g. direct or indirect influences behind the decision-making, the behaviour of leaders, administrators and the citizens etc. on different occasions and the procedure of decision-making controlling of their effects etc.
Thus, philosophical aspect of the political philosophy also is a subject matter of politics. Though political philosophy came into being before politics, yet it is mainly philosophical, not pragmatic. Political philosophy does not explain the working of the state, but presents only a philosophical explanation of the origin of the state, its nature, duties etc. Therefore, political philosophy becomes a part of political science. Thus, the scope of politics, which we study today, is very broad-based and the scopes of both—political science and political philosophy—are included in it. That is why, the political writers lay emphasis on the study of the totality of political problems to find out the solution of all social, economic and political problems of man.
Definition of Politics
Distorted form of Politics. When we try to understand the word 'polities' as common men, it appears before us in the form of practical politics or the art of administration. Its philosophical aspect disappears. Working of political parties, use of fair or foul means in elections, use of bureaucracy for selfish ends through corrupt means etc., are included in politics. Not only this, now-a-days, there is more distorted form of politics which comes before us, we daily hear about politics of the family, politics of the mohalla, politics of the college, politics of the village etc. All this implies that to achieve our aims by telling lies, by cheating and by dishonesty, is called politics. Conferences, processions, slogans, stribes and riots, are being accepted as parts of politics. In fact, it is the distorted form of politics.
The Real Nature of Politics. Politics, as a study, is a very broad discipline. It is called a broad physical activity. In his book, 'An Introduction to Polities', Soltau says, "Politics is the concern of everybody with any sense of responsibility," because it is concerned with everybody. So, nobody can avoid it in spite of the fact whether he has any interest in it or not. When some individuals search for the solution of a problem and take the help of mutual co-operation and struggle, politics comes into being. Because of this very reason, politics exists in every association, organisation-national and international. According to Herbert J. Spiro, Politics is the process by which communities of human beings deal with their problems. Thus, we see that many human problems are being solved out of the state and the associations concerned there with, political parties, pressure groups and elections etc., are
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such fields, the study of which is an important part of politics. By Politics, L. Lipson means "a process of active controversy." By it he means that, in every society there are limited means for the fulfilment of the various necessities and every individual, group or organisation tries to achieve its aims by utilising these limited means. Therefore, because of the limitation of the means, struggle is inevitable. According to Lipson, this process of struggle goes on constantly. In politics, we study the process of solving problem is a constant struggle. In this connection, rise of struggle or clash is not enough. Politics comes into being when man becomes active in solving his problem, participation in politics, criticism of government. Discussion and getting the policy of the government amended through agitation as peasants, labourers and businessmen are the subject matter of politics.
- State is moral organisation and individual can realise the ideal of moral life in the state, maintained the Greek philosophers. The aim of the state is to develop moral qualities in citizens and to do their welfare.
- Greek philosophers wanted an ideal state. Greek philosophers were idealistic and they produced an idea of the establishment of an ideal state. They not only discussed the nature of an ideal state but also produced a complete plan for its establishment. They did not explain the nature of state and society, but discussed as to what the state should be, they were busy in factually establishing an ideal state.
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According to Plato, the actual state did not allow the individual to become fully moral. Therefore, it is only in an ideal state that the individual can live a moral life.
- Aristotle adopted scientific method. He gave scientific basis to politics and named it the Master Science. His idea was to understand the environment around us and to solve the problems, it is essential to study politics scientifically. He drew very significant conclusions by comparing his contemporary constitutions.
2. Traditional view
Traditional View of politics means that view which the political thinkers adopted upto the decades in the beginning of the 20th century. During this long period, efforts have been made to define Politics with reference to the various institutions of political life. That is why, the thinkers of this period— Plato, Hobbes, Rousseau etc.—kept their study limited to the state, the government and the political institutions concerned with them. Therefore, their view became narrow, formal and institutional. This very view is called the Traditional View. From this point of view, political thinkers kept their study limited to the following three institutional bases and named politics as Political Science:
(a) Relation of political science with state.
(b) Relation of political science with the government.
(c) Political science as a study of institutions concerned with state with government.
(a) Political Science is concerned with the state. With the rise of nation-states, the writers of Politics started studying various aspects of these states under the name of Political Science.
According to Bluntschli and Garner the pivotal point in political science is the state. According to Bluntschli, Political Science is the science which is concerned with the state in its fundamental conditions, in its essential nature, in its various forms of manifestation, its development. Similarly, Garner says that Political Science begins and ends with the state. According to Garies, Political Science considers the state as an instrument of power, in the totality of its relations, its
origin, its setting (land and people), its object, its ethical significance, its economic problems, its life conditions, its financial side, its end etc.
(b) Political Science deals with Government. The tradition of keeping the scope of political science limited to the study of government and various institutions related with it, is very popular. Even now-a-days, the traditional writers of many countries support this point of view. Seeley and Leacock have mainly supported this point of view. According to the English writer, John Seeley, Political Science investigates the phenomena of government as Political Economy deals with wealth, Biology with life, Algebra with numbers and Geometry with space and magnitude. Further, Leacock upholds that "Political Science deals with government."
(c) Political Science deals with general problems of state and government. Considering the above given two points of view as partial and narrow, some traditional writers have maintained that Political Science studies both—state and government. In fact, when we study state, government is automatically studied because government is not only a main part of state, but we come to know form of state through government. Without the study of government, the study of state is meaningless. Similarly, government is studied as an agent of the state. According to the French writer Paul Janet, Political Science is that part of social science which treats of foundations of the state and the principles of government. Gettell says that "It (Political Science) is thus a study of the state in the past, present and future of political organisation and political functions of political institutions and political theories. According to Gilchrist, Political Science deals with the general problems of state and government. Demock says that Political Science is concerned with state and its instrumentality—Government.
Characteristics of the Traditional View. After discussing the above given ideas regarding the traditional view, we may now discuss its characteristic features.
- It studies the state and the associations concerned with it in institutional form. Therefore, the subject matter of its study includes state, government, political institutions etc.
- Most of the writers of this view were influenced by ethics and philosophy. Therefore, they tried to fix the aims of the individual and the society. For example, the Greek thinkers put forth the aim of achievement of ethical life;
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the Medieval Christian thinkers imagined the establishment of a theological state, the Idealists put forward the ideal of realisation of the reason.
- The traditional thinkers neglected the scientific method normally. Their approach is subjective and they adopted the deductive method.
- A characteristic of the traditional ideas was that they were not only concerned with politics but with many social sciences. That is why, Plato, Aristotle, Rousseau a Marx etc. are concerned with other social sciences also.
