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WORLDS TURNED INSIDE OUT, 1000–350 BCE
MAIN THEMES
Age of violent warfare spreads across Afro-Eurasia. Innovative societies arise worldwide. Teachers and prophets reshape peoples’ views of the world. Second-generation societies In Eastern Zhou China, beset by constant warfare, sages debated how best to restore order; some advocated In the Ganges Valley, thinkers questioned the traditional Brahmanic rituals and sought new ways of behaving morally and attaining enlightenment. Radical changes also occurred in Greece and the Levant, where the chaos and economic decline caused by the Sea Peoples’ onslaught culminated in the emergence of dynamic city-states and new ideas about good governance engagement while others urged withdrawal from government
Eastern Zhou China
Zhou established an eastern capital in Luoyang 145 Zhou tributary states Spring and Autumn period (722–481 BCE) Warring States period (403–221 BCE) Resulted in multistate system with revolutionary changes
Spring and autumn period (722–481 BCE)
Regional states possessed more power than the central Zhou ruler. New administrative units formed to conscript men for the army and collect taxes. New smelting techniques led to stronger iron swords and armor. Cheaper and better weapons shifted influence from central government to local authorities
The Warring States period (403–221 BCE)
Seven large territorial states emerged with more power than the central Zhou leadership. Qin emerged as the strongest state and replaced the Zhou dynasty in 221 BCE. In preparation to defend China, interest turned to the creation of an elaborate army and culture for the otherworld. New types of statecraft emerged as warring states negotiated treaties, fought battles, and traded with each other. Use of state-of-the-art crossbows. Use of large infantries with cavalries and skilled archers. Knife Coin. Zhou dynasty coins, like the later Han coin shown here, were made of bronze and produced in a variety of shapes, some resembling spades and knives, depending on the region. Each of the Warring States had its own currency. The Terracotta Army : Qin dynasty created an army of terra-cotta warriors and horses for the first Qin emperor to lead into battle in the next life. Some 7,000 artisans and workers prepared thousands of
ornate, carefully made terra-cotta warriors and horses, to help the first Qin emperor in the expected wars he would face in the next life. Hundred Schools of Thought: Out of this political and social turmoil came bold new ideas that dominated Chinese thinking about man’s place in society. The most prominent of the “hundred masters” of the age was Confucius (551–479 BCE); others either expanded on Confucian thought or formulated opposing ideas about human nature and the role of government.
Confucius (551–479 BCE)
Confucius wanted to end the chaos of the times and restore order by promoting education and moral behavior. Whether noble or humble; thus any man could gain the education to become a gentleman of the ruling class. An individual’s position in that hierarchy might rest now on education rather than on birth. Confucius left no writings , but his followers compiled and transmitted his teachings after his death.
Mohism (teachings of Mozi or Mo Di) (c. 479–438 BCE)
He opposed wars of conquest, arguing that they wasted life and resources and interfered with productivity and the fair distribution of wealth. Mozi emphasized practical concerns of good government
Daoism was a philosophy espoused by Laozi and Zhuangzi
Stressed the dao (the way) of nature and the cosmos ( harmony with nature ). The wuwei, “ doing nothing ” acceptance of the world as it is, rather than attempting to change it through politics and government. Viewing life and death simply as different stages of existence.
Legalism grew out of the writings of Xunzi and Han Fei
He believed that men and women were innately bad and therefore required moral education and authoritarian control. Need strict moral code and laws to keep people in line SCHOLARS AND THE STATE Scholars became state functionaries dependent on the rulers’ patronage. In return, rulers recognized the scholars’ expertise in matters of punishment, ritual, astronomy, medicine, and divination. The growing importance of statecraft and philosophical discourse promoted the use of writing. Some 9,000 to 10, graphs or signs became required for writing in East Asia. STATE ADMINISTRATION The Warring States period created a system of registering peasant households to facilitate tax collection and army conscription. A minister, Shang Yang of Qin, his reforms positioned the Qin domain to become the dominant state of its time:
- He divided the land into blocks for individual households to farm.
- He introduced a head tax , ensuring that households having two or more adult sons would pay more taxes than families with only one.
- Shang Yang designed a harsh penal code that stressed collective responsibility. Eastern Zhou China
Frozen Social Statues: To protect their monopolies, guilds required their members to marry within their organizations. Coins came into use in these cities at about the same time as they appeared in Greece and China. BRAHMANS, THEIR CHALLENGERS, AND NEW BELIEFS When an alphabetic script appeared around 600 BCE, it undermined the Brahmans’ control and weakened the moral legitimacy of the order they dominated. Brahmans sought to strengthen their relationships with the rajas by establishing the idea of a king endowed with divine power. Kingly authority was validated through religious ceremonies carried out by Brahman priests. DISSIDENT THINKERS and new beliefs, Dissident South Asian thinkers challenged the Brahmans’ worldview by refusing to recognize the Vedic gods. VARDHAMANA MAHAVIRA (c. 540-468 BCE) AND JAINISM Born in a Kshatriya family, he left home and wandered around for 12 years as an ascetic to seek the truth. The Jains’ religious doctrines emphasized asceticism over knowledge: strict self-denial to avoid harming other creatures in order to purify the soul as the purpose of life. CHIEF PRINCIPALS OF JAINISM AHIMSA MEANS NON-VİOLANCE. It believes that one must abandon all violent activity, and without such a commitment to non-violence all religious behavior is worthless. (non-killing inevitably excluded peasants) APARIGRAHA MEANS NON-ATTACHMENT to worldly possessions. For Jain laypersons, it recommends limited possession of property that has been honestly earned, and giving excess property to charity. Material possessions are viewed in Jainism as what leads to passions, which in turn leads to violence. ASCETICISM means to control desires, and to purify the jiva ('soul'). Fasting, eating limited amounts, eating restricted items, etc. BUDDHA AND BUDDHISM Siddhartha Gautama (c. 563–483 BCE) came from a small Kshatriya community in the foothills of the Himalayas; in this oligarchic republic, his father was one of the rajas. His ascetic life led him to create his teachings, expressed as the Four Truths: (1) life , from birth to death, is full of suffering; (2) all sufferings are caused by desires; (3) the only way to rise above suffering is to renounce desire ; (4) and thus reach a state of contentment, or nirvana. The Buddha’s Footprints. Before his followers came to regard Buddha as a god, they were reluctant to make an idol of him—the footprints were an early representation of Buddha. They were carved in a limestone panel in a first-century BCE stupa in India. BUDDHA AND BUDDHISM
Like the teachings of Mahavira , the Buddha’s doctrines left no space for the super naturals to dictate human lives, a theme stressed in classical Brahmanic thinking Those who accumulated enough merits could be reborn in heaven Attaining nirvana , was the sole means of achieving liberation from life’s troubles Buddha delivered his message in a vernacular dialect of Sanskrit that all could understand. Common Cultures in the Americas Early inhabitants of America lived in dispersed villages. Some contact took place over time, especially where travel by canoe was possible Did not have domesticable animals Wheel was not used for hauling or transportation Limited the distances people could travel, communicate, and trade THE CHAVÍN IN THE ANDES In what is now northern Peru , farmers and pastoralists began to share a common belief system around 1400 BCE.Like the peoples of South Asia, the Chavín were united by culture and faith more than by any political structure. What unified the fragmented Chavín communities was a shared artistic tradition reflecting devotion to powerful deities. They created devotional cults that revered wild animals as representatives of spiritual forces. Carved stone jaguars, serpents, and hawks. A pyramid that once housed the remains of 200 people, possibly as tributes to accompany a wealthy leader into the afterlife. The city was named Teotihuacán by the Aztecs who discovered it after its collapse. The name translates roughly to “city of the gods.” Unfortunately, no written records or art depicting specific rulers survive from Teotihuacán itself. The city center wielded enormous power between 300 and 600 CE. Teotihuacán likely housed 200,000 people in the city itself. El Lanzón. The Chavín excelled at elaborate stone carvings with complex images of their deities. This image of El Lanzón is a good example. The Olmecs in Mesoamerica (First advanced civilization emerged c. 1500 BCE in central Mexico) The Olmec were among the first Mesoamerican complex societies , and their culture influenced many later civilizations, like the Maya. Their residents traded with one another, shared a common language , and worshipped the same gods. The name Olmec is an Aztec word meaning the rubber people ; the Olmec made and traded rubber throughout Mesoamerica. Olmecs had a complex social hierarchy Priests and chieftains dominated the highest social order Though not outright militaristic, the Olmec culture did become widespread in the region. A merchant class seems to have been heavily involved in the export-import business During village life, most Olmecs practiced subsistent farming
Another was rule by a small number of wealthy and powerful citizens—the oligoi , meaning “the few” in Greek (hence “oligarchs” The most inclusive type of government involved all free adult males in a city—in Greek, a demokratia (“democracy”). The new cities of the Mediterranean basin became communities of adult male citizens , other free persons (including women, who could not vote or hold office), foreign immigrants , and large numbers of unfree persons. Still, Athenian democracy was limited to its male citizens. Foreigners, enslaved people, and women were excluded from these institutions. Women’s roles were largely confined to the private sphere, where they were responsible for raising children and managing the household, including enslaved people if the household could afford them. While women of the upper classes were often literate, most were not likely to receive an education beyond what was needed for the execution of their domestic duties. Enslaved people, while not involved in political affairs, were integral to the Athenian economy. They cultivated food, worked large construction projects, and labored in mines and quarries. Greek city-states were free wheeling and competitive places, sometimes bloodily so. Their histories relate violent rivalries between individuals, social classes, and other groups. Competition for honor and prestige was a value that shaped behavior in the city-states. This extreme competitive ethic found a benign outlet in organized sporting events. Almost from the moment that Greek city-states emerged, athletic contests sprang up— The greatest competitions were the Olympic Games , which began in 776 BCE at Olympia in southern Greece FREE MARKETS AND MONEY-BASED ECONOMIES Economic innovations (the alphabet, coins, and the central marketplace ) facilitated trade among the fragmented Mediterranean communities. The Greek historian Herodotus , who journeyed widely in the mid-fifth century BCE, observed that the new city-states had at their center a marketplace ( agora ) chattel slavery: Human beings were bought and sold in a system of chattel slavery. Used for labor , especially in dangerous or exhausting tasks. Trade network that developed made it easier to buy and transport slaves The Agora. The agora, or central open marketplace, was one of the core defining features of Mediterranean city-states. At its center, each city had one of these open-air plazas, the heart of its commercial, religious, social, and political life. When a new city was founded, the agora was one of the first places that the colonists measured out. Hoplites. Most battles between Greek city-states took place on land between massed formations of infantrymen, or “ hoplites ” (hoplon meaning shield). Since hoplites wore the same armor and
contributed equally to the battle line, the nature of hoplite warfare helped to define the democratic ethos of the individual citizen. The hoplites were primarily represented by free citizens —propertied farmers and artisans—who were able to afford the bronze armour suit and weapons (estimated at a third to a half of its able-bodied adult male population). Although some states did maintain a small elite professional unit, hoplite soldiers were relied on heavily and made up the bulk of ancient Greek armies of the time. Mediterranean Coins. From the 6th century BCE onward, money in the form of precious metal coins began spreading through the city-states of the Mediterranean, beginning with the Greek city-states in the western parts of what is today Turkey, then spreading to the other Greek poleis and beyond. On the left here is the classic tetradrachm (four-drachma piece) coin of Athens with its owl of the goddess Athena; on the right is a silver coin of shekel weight produced by the city of Carthage in the western Mediterranean.
Evidence of Hellenistic Culture
Common culture included language, artistic style, and politics Secular disciplines Philosophical and political thinking Popular entertainment Public games Art for art’s sake Common language Common (koine) Greek became the international language of the day The Greek historian Herodotus mentions that the citizens of Meroe “worshipped Zeus and Dionysus alone of the gods, holding them in great honor. There is an oracle of Zeus there, and they make war according to its pronouncements.” philosophia and philosophoi Without a monarchy, priestly rule, or other authority, ideas and beliefs were free to rise, circulate, and clash. Public thinking, the Greeks called it philosophia (“love of wisdom”), and the professional thinkers who were good at it philosophoi (“philosophers”). Many broke from looking at the role of gods and instead looked to nature itself. Following a time of intense warfare , debate turned to trying to describe an ideal city Thales (c. 636–546 BCE) believed that water was the primal substance from which all other things were created. Xenophanes (c. 570–480 BCE) doubted the existence of gods as they had been portrayed. He pointed out that each ethnic group in fact produced images of gods that resembled themselves. Democritus (c. 460–370 BCE), who claimed that everything comprised small and ultimately indivisible particles. Democritus called them atoma (“uncuttables”).
Olmecs and Chavín peoples produce increasingly hierarchical societies and connect villages via trade. Large-scale common cultures emerge. Sub-Saharan Africa Expansion of the Sahara Desert and population explosion cause people to coalesce in a few locations. Early signs of a Sudanic common culture appear across the region. FOCUS QUESTIONS-try to answer How did “second-generation” cultures expand social, political, and cultural options? In what ways did scholars propose ending the warfare and chaos of China’s Spring and Autumn and Warring States periods? How did political and social transformations encourage new beliefs and dissident thinkers in South Asia? How did cultural integration occur in the Andes and Mesoamerica in the absence of political unity? In what ways did city-states integrate the dispersed settlements of the Mediterranean?
