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THE AMERICAN
JOURNAL OF^ THEOLOGY
VolumeXIII^ JANUARY, 1909 Number^1
WAS JESUS OR PAUL THE FOUNDER OF CHRISTIANITY?
PROFESSOR ARTHUR CUSHMAN McGIFFERT, D.D. Union (^) Theological Seminary, New York (^) City This (^) question in one or another form has been discussed (^) during the last (^) year or two (^) by a number of German scholars. (^) Among the more (^) important books (^) relating to the (^) subject are Wrede's (^) Paulus, Kaftan's Jesus und (^) Paulus, (^) Jilicher's Paulus und (^) Jesus, and Meyer's Wer^ hat^ das^ Christenthum begriindet, Jesus^ oder^ Paulus? In (^) writing the (^) present article, at the (^) request of the editors of the Ameri-
can Journal of Theology, it is not my purpose to review these and
similar (^) works, but to indicate some of the elements of the (^) problem, and to (^) present the (^) principal considerations that have to be taken into account in (^) dealing with (^) it, together with the conclusions to (^) which they seem^ to^ lead. The (^) question may be considered from three (^) points of view: the relation of (^) Jesus and Paul to the Christian (^) movement, to the Christian church as an (^) institution, and to the content of historical (^) Christianity. I. The Christian movement was due to the twofold belief in Jesus' messiahship and^ resurrection.^ Had^ his^ disciples regarded him (^) simply as a (^) prophet or (^) teacher his death would (^) have made no serious difference. The truth which he (^) taught would have remained true even (^) though he was no more. But the death of the Messiah was an (^) altogether different matter. Before (^) anything had been done which it^ was believed^ the^ Messiah was to^ do, and which alone (^) gave I
2 THE AMERICAN JOURNAL OF THEOLOGY
him (^) any significance, the end had come. The (^) only possible conclusion seemed to be that his (^) disciples were mistaken in (^) supposing Jesus the Messiah. This conclusion (^) they must have shared with their fellow- countrymen had^ it^ not^ been^ for^ his^ resurrection.^ That^ event^ meant the rehabilitation of their belief in his (^) messiahship and the conviction that he would (^) yet establish the (^) kingdom and (^) accomplish Messiah's work. That he had left them (^) again almost (^) immediately was because the (^) people were not (^) yet prepared for the (^) kingdom; he was (^) alive, not dead, and^ would^ return^ from^ heaven^ as^ soon^ as^ they were^ ready for his (^) coming. It was this conviction that was (^) responsible for the Christian movement within (^) Judaism after (^) Jesus' departure. The movement was connected with (^) Jesus, for it was based (^) upon a convic- tion about (^) him, but^ it^ was (^) essentially a^ new^ movement. The^ purpose of it was not to (^) spread his (^) gospel, but to convince the (^) Jewish people that he was the (^) Messiah, and would soon return to establish the promised messianic^ kingdom, and^ so^ to^ induce^ them^ to^ prepare them- selves for it (^) by repentance and (^) righteousness. The movement was now messianic in a strict (^) sense, and in (^) becoming such it took on a
significancealtogetherdifferentfrom^ that^ given to^ it^ by Jesus himself.
It is (^) impossible in this article to discuss the (^) widely debated (^) question whether (^) Jesus actually claimed to be the (^) Messiah.' I can (^) simply express the^ opinion that^ his^ disciples could^ not^ have^ continued^ to think of him thus when he died without (^) fulfilling any of their messianic expectations, had^ he^ not^ himself^ given them^ some^ warrant^ for^ the belief. On the^ other^ hand, that^ he^ set^ up a^ direct^ and^ positive claim to (^) messiahship, and based^ his^ appeal to^ his^ countrymen upon that claim, is^ apparently precluded by the^ Synoptic account^ of^ his^ work and (^) teaching. His attitude in the matter seems to have been (^) negative rather than (^) positive. In (^) ceasing to believe in the (^) coming of the conquering Messiah^ who^ should^ subdue^ the^ nations^ of^ the^ earth^ and raise Israel to^ a^ position of^ political supremacy, and^ in^ substituting for an external and visible (^) kingdom the (^) reign among men of love for God and (^) neighbor, he (^) gave up all that was essential and (^) significant in the messianic (^) hopes of his (^) people. If he still made use of the I The^ question is^ exceedingly complicated and^ to^ attempt to^ deal^ with^ it^ in^ a few (^) paragraphs would be futile. (^) (For the literature of the (^) subject see (^) especially H. (^) J. Holtzmann's Das Messianische (^) Bewusstsein Jesu, (^) 190o7.)
4 THE^ AMERICAN^ JOURNAL^ OF^ THEOLOGY is not so (^) easy to (^) suppose in view of his common (^) thought of his own (^) work, and also in view of the attitude of the (^) disciples after his death. Had (^) they been in (^) possession of such clear and explicit prophecies of^ his^ exaltation^ to^ heaven^ and^ return^ therefrom in messianic (^) glory, his death would have caused them less (^) difficulty than it did.^ If^ Jesus appropriated the^ term^ Son of^ Man^ and^ used it in a messianic (^) sense, even (^) though he (^) gave his own (^) interpetation of messiahship in^ such^ passages as^ "The^ Son^ of^ man^ came^ to^ seek^ and to (^) save that which was (^) lost," and "The Son of man came not to be ministered unto^ but^ to^ minister," it^ would^ be almost^ inevitable^ that his (^) followers, under the influence of current (^) apocalyptic, should (^) apply to him the familiar (^) picture of the Son of man (^) coming upon the clouds for (^) judgment. The (^) apologetic value, indeed (^) necessity, of such a procedure is^ apparent. Belief^ in^ the^ second^ coming there^ must^ be or faith in (^) Jesus' messiahship could not survive his death and subse- quent departure. That^ the^ disciples should^ fill^ out^ their^ picture of him as Messiah (^) by adding traditional features which alone made his messiahship conceivable^ was^ the^ most^ natural^ thing in^ the^ world. Under these circumstances it seems (^) unnecessary to (^) place implicit confidence in the (^) apocalyptic passages in the (^) gospels; just here, if anywhere, the^ influence^ of^ early Christian^ beliefs^ might be^ expected to make itself felt. If (^) Jesus' attitude toward his own (^) messiahship was in (^) general as has been indicated it is evident that we can (^) speak of him as the founder of the messianic movement carried on (^) by his (^) disciples after his death only in^ a^ limited^ sense.^ He^ undertook^ to^ promote God's^ kingdom in Israel (^) by leading his fellows to live as true children of (^) God, and he doubtless believed that the work would (^) go on after^ his^ departure under the (^) leadership of those who knew him^ best (^) (indeed he seems to have felt that his death would (^) actually promote the work and be a blessing to^ the^ cause; compare for^ instance^ his^ words^ at^ the^ last supper), and^ in^ so^ far^ he^ may be^ called^ the^ conscious^ and^ deliberate founder of the movement that (^) ultimately came to be called (^) Christianity. But (^) when that movement took on a (^) strictly messianic character and its leaders conceived their mission in terms so different from (^) his, it is (^) only by accommodation, and at best in an external (^) sense, that we can (^) speak of it as the same. In (^) any case the movement did not
THE FOUNDER OF CHRISTIANITY 5
owe its origin to Paul; it was older than he. But at his hands it
underwent still further^ transformation. (^) Spiritual and^ ethical^ values were (^) brought once more to the front, and almost (^) wholly crowded out the traditional messianic ideas of the earlier (^) disciples. In what sense he (^) may be said to have forwarded (^) Jesus' own (^) movement, and in how far he is to be (^) regarded as the (^) originator of a new (^) movement, will, I hope, appear as^ we^ go^ on. II. In one sense it (^) may be said that the Christian church as an institution came into^ existence with^ the^ inception of^ the^ messianic movement which we have been (^) considering, but in^ another sense it is an anachronism to use the word church in connection with that movement. The word occurs in two (^) places in the (^) gospels (once in Matt. i6:i8 and twice in Matt. i8: (^) I7), in each case (^) upon the (^) lips of Jesus, but^ modern^ critical^ opinion is^ almost^ unanimous^ in^ denying the (^) authenticity of both (^) passages." It is (^) impossible to enter here into a discussion of their (^) genuineness, but^ in^ view of^ the^ silence of the other (^) gospels and the (^) striking lack of reference to them in the literature of the first and second (^) centuries, I am (^) myself unable to be- lieve that the words in (^) question were (^) spoken by Jesus. And indeed
it would be very surprisingif they had been, for nowhereelse is there
any indication^ that^ he^ had^ in^ mind^ the^ establishment^ of^ any institution which could (^) properly bear the name of church.^ Of such an^ institution there is no (^) sign that he (^) thought at (^) all, and at^ any rate it (^) may be regarded as^ certain^ that^ he^ took^ no^ steps toward^ its^ organization, for we should (^) surely know it if he had. Much the same (^) may be said of his^ early Jerusalem disciples. In^ a^ sense, as^ already remarked, the Christian church came into existence when (^) they returned to (^) Jeru- salem after (^) Jesus' departure with the conviction that he had risen from the (^) dead, and (^) began their messianic (^) preaching there. But
properlyspeakingit^ had^ its^ origin^ at^ a^ later^ time.^ The^ earlyJewish
disciples remained^ members^ of^ the^ Jewish^ church^ and^ had^ no^ thought of (^) founding another. (^) Only with the (^) separation of (^) Christianity from Judaism could^ the^ idea^ of^ a^ Christian^ church^ in^ a^ strict^ sense^ arise. 2 For^ the^ evidence^ see^ Resch,^ Aussercanoniscke Paralleltexte^ zu den^ Evangelien, pp. (^) x87 if., 230 ft. Weiss,^ in^ his^ recent^ works^ on^ the^ Synoptics,^ defends^ Matt.^ i6:x but repudiates Matt.^ 18:^ 17; see^ Die^ Quellen des^ Lukasevangeliums, p. 157; Die^ Quellen der Synoptischen Uberlieferung, p. 64.
THE FOUNDER OF CHRISTIANITY (^7) messianic (^) movement, without (^) Jesus it would not have (^) been, for it was in his name and (^) upon faith in him that it was built. III. More (^) important is the (^) question as to the relation of (^) Jesus and Paul to the content of historic (^) Christianity, to the (^) principles which underlie it and to the beliefs and (^) practices which constitute it. Turning first^ to^ historic^ Christian^ practices, among the^ most^ dis- tinctive and (^) characteristic are the (^) worship of God (^) through Christ, the (^) worship of Christ (^) himself, and the observance of the (^) sacraments, in all of which Christian (^) religious faith and devotion have (^) commonly found (^) expression from an (^) early day. The first of these (^) practices seems to have been universal almost from the (^) beginning. The (^) long prayer at the end of Clement's (^) epistle to the Corinthians closes with the words "We (^) praise Thee (^) through the high (^) priest and^ guardian of^ our^ souls, (^) Jesus Christ, through whom be the (^) glory and (^) majesty unto Thee both now and for all (^) generations and forever and ever. (^) Amen."4 Similarly the (^) prayer of (^) Polycarp recorded in the (^) Martyrdom of Polycarp, chap. 14, concludes thus: "I (^) praise Thee, I bless (^) Thee, I (^) glorify Thee (^) through the eternal and heavenly high priest, Jesus Christ^ thy beloved^ son, through whom^ to Thee with him and the (^) Holy Spirit be (^) glory both (^) now and for (^) ages to come. Amen."s In (^) Origen's Tract on (^) Prayer, chap. I5, occurs one of^ the^ most^ interesting patristic passages on the (^) subject: If we understandwhat (^) prayer is we see that it is to be offered to no (^) creature, not even to Christ (^) himself, but (^) only to God the Father of the (^) universe, to (^) whom also our^ Savior^ himself^ prayed, as^ we have (^) already said, and (^) taught us to (^) pray. For (^) when he heard (^) the (^) request "Teach us to (^) pray," he did not teach to (^) pray to himself, but^ to^ the^ Father, saying "Our^ Father^ which^ art^ in^ heaven," etc. For if, as^ has^ been^ shown^ elsewhere, the^ Son is^ other^ than the Father in (^) being and hypostasis, one^ must^ pray to^ the^ Son^ and^ not^ to^ the^ Father, or^ to^ both, or^ to^ the Father alone. To (^) pray to the Son and not to the Father (^) everyonewould confess to be most (^) unfitting and absurd. But if we are to (^) pray to both it is clear that we ought to^ use^ the^ plural, and^ say "Do^ ye grant,""Do^ ye show^ favor," "Do^ ye bestow blessings," "Do^ ye save," and^ the^ like.^ But^ this^ mode^ of^ expression is^ in^ itself incongruous, and^ no^ one^ can^ show^ that^ it^ has^ been^ employed by anyone in^ the Scriptures. It^ remainsthereforeto^ pray to^ God^ alone, the^ Father^ of^ the^ universe, but not (^) apart from the (^) High Priestwho was (^) appointedby the Father with an oath 4 1 Clem. (^) 61; cf. also (^) chap. 20. s Comparealso^ Justin Martyr'sfirst^ apology,65, 67; Ignatius, Eph. 4, Rom. 2; and the (^) Didache 9.
8 THE AMERICAN JOURNAL OF THEOLOGY as it is said "He hath sworn and will not (^) repent; thou art a (^) high priest forever after the order of (^) Melchizedek." Therefore when the saints (^) give thanks to God in their (^) prayersthey offer their thanks (^) through Jesus Christ. But as the one who prays rightly cannot^ pray to^ him^ who^ prays, but^ to^ him^ whom^ our^ Lord^ Jesus taught us^ in^ prayerto^ call^ Father,^ no^ one^ ought to^ offer^ prayerto^ the^ Father^ apart from him. This he himself shows (^) clearly when he (^) says, "Verily, verily, I (^) say unto (^) you, whatsoeverye shall ask of (^) my Father he will (^) give it to (^) you in (^) my name. Hitherto (^) ye have asked (^) nothing in (^) my name; ask and (^) ye shall receive that (^) your joy may be^ full."^ For^ he^ did^ not^ say "Ask^ me," nor^ "Ask^ the^ Father"^ simply, but "Whatever (^) ye shall ask the Father he will (^) give it to (^) you in (^) my name." For until (^) Jesus taught thus no one had asked the Father in the name of the (^) Son, and what (^) Jesus said was (^) true, "Hitherto have (^) ye asked (^) nothing in (^) my name;" true also his words "Ask and (^) ye shall receive that (^) your joy may be full." The custom of (^) praying to God (^) through Christ, or in his (^) name, thus testified to (^) by Origen, has continued (^) through all the Christian centuries, and^ has^ found^ expression in^ formal^ liturgies both^ early and late (^) (cf., for (^) instance, the (^) prayers in the (^) Apostolic Constitutions, Book (^) 8). The reason which^ led to it is^ sufficiently indicated (^) by the passages quoted from^ Clement, Polycarp, and^ Origen, and^ by Nova- tian in his work on the (^) Trinity, chap. 14, where it is said: "If Christ be (^) only a man (^) why is a man invoked in (^) prayer as a mediator?" Of the (^) practice of (^) praying to Christ himself we have few direct examples in^ our^ earliest^ Christian^ sources, but^ in^ Pliny's letter^ to Trajan it^ is^ said, "They sang unto^ Christ^ as^ to^ God," and^ Justin Martyr thought the^ practice so^ important that^ he^ devoted^ a^ consider- able (^) part of his (^) Dialogue with (^) Trypho to a defense of it.6 Formal prayer, if^ we^ may judge from^ the^ ancient^ liturgies, seems^ to^ have^ been addressed (^) commonly to (^) God, either alone or in Christ's (^) name, and not to Christ himself instead of or in (^) conjunction with God. But Christ was (^) frequently addressed (^) directly in brief or informal (^) petition or (^) ascrip- tion (cf., for^ instance, the^ words^ of^ Stephen in^ Acts^ 7:59). The passage quoted from^ Origen shows^ that^ the^ practice of^ praying directly to Christ was current in his (^) day, though he was himself (^) opposed to it, and^ it^ has^ remained^ common^ ever^ since,^ though less^ so^ than^ prayer to God^ through Christ. Both forms of Christian (^) prayer owed much to Paul. (^) According to him^ no^ one^ can^ come^ into^ communion^ with^ God^ except through (^6) Compare chaps. 55 ff. and (^) Apology I, 6.
IO THE^ AMERICAN^ JOURNAL^ OF^ THEOLOGY
As to Christ'sown attitudein the matterthe Lord's Prayerseems
sufficientevidencethat he had nothingdirectlyto do with eitherof the
practicesreferredto.^ In^ the^ lightof^ that^ prayer,andof^ such^ passages
as Mark (^) io:i8, Matt. (^) 20:23; 24:36, it is clear that he cannot have
thought of^ himself^ as^ an^ object of^ divine^ worship,and^ it^ is^ almost^ as
difficultto supposethat he taughtthat prayerto God should be offered
throughhim^ and^ in^ his^ name.^ The^ conclusionindeed^ can^ hardlybe
avoided that the words of (^) John (14: (^) I3, (^) 14; 15:I6; I6:23, 24, (^) 26),
which Origen quotes as authorityfor prayingin Jesus' name, were
not spoken by Jesus. He would have the piety of his disciplesvoice
itself as his own did, not in prayerto himself, but to God his Father
and theirs,and not throughhim or in his name, but in the direct and
intimate communionof son with father. The words in John are
entirelyin^ keeping with^ the^ generalnotion^ of^ the^ evangelistthat^ we
becomechildrenof God only throughChristthe Son of^ God, that^ we
can approachthe Father and communewith him only through the
Son, and^ that^ it^ is^ only on^ his^ account^ that^ God^ treats^ men^ as^ sons.
But this was certainlynot Christ'sown belief. All men are children
of God accordingto him and all may approachtheir heavenlyFather
in perfectconfidenceand communedirectlywith him. It is true that
Jesus was^ conscious^ of^ his^ divine^ mission,^ and^ believed^ that^ his
messageto^ his^ fellows^ was^ God's^ supreme revelationto^ them,^ and
even went so far as to assert his indispensableplace in the media-
tion of the (^) knowledge of God (^) (Matt. I1:27; Luke (^) o10:22); and it is
further true that historically Christians actually have come to
know the Christian God through him, and that he still consti-
tutes the chief groundand guaranteeof their faith in God. In so
far as^ prayer in^ his^ name means the recognition of this^ great
fact it is abundantlyjustified even though he himself may not
have given directwarrantto it. But in so far as it implies, as it did
in the beginning and has widely ever since, that God must be
approachedthrough a^ mediator,or^ that^ prayeris^ more^ effectivefor
being offered^ in^ Christ's^ name, it^ is^ untrue^ both^ to^ the^ teachingand
the spirit of the Master.
So far as the sacramentsare concerned,I have set forth elsewhere
the reasonsfor^ thinkingthat^ Jesus did^ not institute either Christian
baptismor^ the^ Lord's^ Supper,and^ it^ is^ not^ necessaryto^ repeat them
THE FOUNDER OF CHRISTIANITY II
here.9 The^ relation^ of^ Paul^ to^ both^ these^ rites^ is^ interesting^ and instructive. (^) Baptism was (^) evidently in common use in the church before his conversion. He (^) lays little stress (^) upon it himself (^) (" Christ sent me not to (^) baptize but to (^) preach the (^) gospel," I Cor. (^) I:17), but he (^) brings it into (^) connection with his (^) theory of (^) redemption, and thus gives it^ a^ sacramental^ character^ which^ it^ could^ not^ otherwise^ have acquired. Buried^ with^ Christ^ in^ baptism we^ rise^ with^ him^ to^ newness of life (^) (Rom. 6:3 ff.). Baptism thus marks the death of the old nature and the birth of the (^) new, or, in other (^) words, it is (^) already, in (^) germ at least, the^ sacrament^ of^ regeneration, so^ that^ John can^ write^ "Except a man be born of water and the (^) Spirit he cannot enter into the (^) kingdom of God" (^) (John (^) 3:5), Ignatius can (^) speak of Christ as (^) "cleansing water by his^ passion" (Eph. i8), and^ Irenaeus can^ refer^ to^ baptism as^ "that baptism which^ is^ regeneration unto^ God"^ (Adv. Haer.^ i, 21, I; cf. also (^) iii, I7, I), and in his (^) newly discovered Demonstration (^) of the Apostolic Preaching can^ say "Faith^ teaches^ us^.^.^.^.^ that^ this baptism is^ the^ seed^ of^ eternal^ life^ and^ regeneration in^ God, in^ order that we (^) may not be children of mortal (^) men, but of the eternal and self-existent God."' Paul's influence in connection with the Lord's (^) Supper was even more direct and (^) controlling. The Lord's (^) Supper existed as a com- mon meal before he became a (^) Christian, but he (^) gave it a new character; in the^ first (^) place, by representing it as a memorial of Christ's death and so (^) making it a solemn (^) thing (I Cor., (^) chap. (^) iI), in the second (^) place by transforming it into a (^) purely religious ceremony, and (^) destroying its character as a common (^) meal, eaten for the (^) purpose of (^) satisfying hunger and thirst (^) ("Have ye not houses to eat and drink in ?" "If (^) any man is (^) hungry let him eat at (^) home," I (^) Cor. Ii:22, (^) 34), and in^ the third (^) place by bringing it^ into^ connection with his doctrine of (^) redemption through union with^ Christ (I Cor. (^) io:i6 ff). That the Lord's (^) Supper early became a sacrament in the strict (^) sense, that (^) is, a means (^) by which the divine nature or divine (^) grace is con- 9 On^ baptism see^ History of Christianity in^ the^ Apostolic^ Age, pp. (^) 6i ff.,^ and particularly The^ Apostles' Creed, pp. 175 if.; on^ the^ Lord's^ Supper, History of Christ- ianity in^ the^ ApostolicAge, p. 69. Io (^) Cf. also (^) Justin's first (^) Apology, chap. 61, and Tertullian's tract On (^) Baptism, chap. 4.
THE FOUNDER OF CHRISTIANITY (^13) descending from^ the^ Father, becoming incarnate, stooping even^ to^ death, and consummating the^ dispensation of^ our^ salvation.1" And (^) Athanasius, early in the fourth (^) century, says: Thus, then, God^ made^ man^ and^ willed^ that^ he^ should^ abide^ in^ incorruption. But men (^) having despised and (^) rejected the (^) contemplation of God and devised and contrived evil for (^) themselves, as was shown in the (^) former treatise, received the condemnation of death with which (^) they had been (^) threatened, and from thenceforthno (^) longer remainedas (^) they were (^) made, but were (^) corruptedaccording to their (^) devices, and death (^) reigned over them (^) .... Now if there were (^) merely a misdemeanor in (^) question, and not a (^) consequent corruption,repentance were well (^) enough. But (^) if, when (^) transgressionhad (^) once (^) gained a start, men became involved in (^) natural (^) corruption,and were (^) deprivedof the (^) grace of the divine (^) image, what else was needed to be (^) done, or what was (^) required for such (^) grace and such restoration but the Word of God which had also at the (^) beginning made (^) every- thing out^ of^ nothing (^) ?' The same sentiment (^) appears twelve centuries later in the Canons and Decrees of the Council (^) of Trent, session (^) 5: If (^) anyone does not (^) confess that the first man, (^) Adam, when he had trans- gressed the^ commandmentof^ God^ in^ paradise, immediatelylost^ the^ holiness^ and justice in^ which^ he^ had^ been^ constituted; and^ that^ he^ incurred^ through the offense of such (^) prevaricationthe wrath and (^) indignation of God and (^) consequently death which God had (^) previously threatened him (^) with, and (^) together with death captivity under^ the^ power of^ him^ who^ thenceforthhad^ the^ empire of^ death, that is to (^) say, the (^) devil; and that (^) the entire Adam (^) throughthat offense of (^) prevarication was (^) changed as (^) respects body and soul for the (^) worse, let him be anathema. If anyone asserts^ that^ the^ prevaricationof^ Adam^ injured himself^ alone^ and^ not^ his posterity, and^ that^ he^ lost^ for^ himself^ alone^ and^ not^ for^ us^ also^ the^ holiness^ and justice received^ of^ God; or^ that^ he, defiled by the^ sin^ of^ disobedience, has^ only transfuseddeath and (^) pains of the (^) body into the whole human (^) race, but not (^) sin also which is the death of the (^) soul, let him be anathema. It was in accordance with this conviction of man's need and this interpretation of^ the^ purpose of^ Christianity that Christ was viewed as a Savior who (^) supplies the means without which the needed trans- formation cannot be (^) accomplished. His work (^) might be (^) variously understood. It (^) might be (^) interpreted more (^) realistically, as was com- mon in the (^) east, or more (^) legally, as in the (^) west, and the (^) emphasis might be^ laid^ upon the^ incarnation^ chiefly, or^ upon the^ death, both of which were (^) everywhere recognized as (^) essential, but, in (^) any case, that in some (^) way it made (^) possible the (^) change of man's evil nature (^12) Adv. (^) Haer., iii, i8: 2. '3 (^) On the Incarnationof the (^) Word,paragraphs 4 and 7.
14 THE^ AMERICAN JOURNAL^ OF^ THEOLOGY and his (^) consequent escape from destruction all were (^) agreed. Upon this idea of Christ's work was based the historic belief in his (^) deity.
As a mere prophet he might instruct men and set before them an
example of^ perfect^ obedience,^ but^ only^ as^ he^ was^ divine^ could^ he^ by his (^) indwelling endow human nature with (^) incorruption and immor- tality, or^ pay an^ adequate price for^ men's^ redemption.' It was in^ accordance also with^ this (^) general view^ of^ Christianity
that the Christian life was thought of as supernaturaland other-
worldly. The^ Christian, born^ from^ above, is^ no^ longer a^ mere^ natural
and earthlyman, and he finds his true home not here but in another
sphere. His^ attitude^ toward^ the^ present world^ is^ thereforethat^ of
detachmentand renunciation. Not to set one's affectionsupon the
better and (^) higher things of this (^) life, but to set them on another life
altogetherwas^ the^ constanteffort.^ The^ wordsof^ John'sFirst^ Epistle
expressthe^ universalideal:^ "Love^ not^ the^ world, neitherthe^ things
that are in the world. If (^) any man love the world the love of the Father
is not in him. For all that is in the world, the lust of the flesh, and
the lust of the eyes, and the vainglory of life is not of the Father,
but is of the world" (^) (2:I5, (^) I6).'s '4 (^) Compare for instance such (^) passages as the (^) following: "For on this account the Word of God became (^) man, and he who was the Son of God was made the Son of (^) man, that man (^) having contained the Word of (^) God, and (^) receiving the (^) adoption, might become the son^ of God.^ For by no^ other means could^ we^ have^ attained^ to^ incorruptibility and immortality unless we had^ been joined to^ incorruptibility and^ immortality. But how could we be (^) joined to incorruptibility and immortality unless first incorruptibility and (^) immortality had been made what we also are ?"^ (Irenaeus, iii, (^) i9, i.) "How can (^) they be saved unless it is God who has (^) wrought out their salvation (^) upon earth? And how shall man (^) pass into God unless God has (^) passed into man ?"^ (ibid. iv, (^) 33, (^) 4). "For (^) being above (^) all, the Word of (^) God, by offering his own (^) temple and (^) corporeal in- strument for the life of (^) all, fittingly satisfied the debt (^) by his death. And thus the incorruptible Son^ of^ God, being conjoined with^ all^ by a^ like^ nature, fittingly clothed^ all with (^) incorruption by the (^) promise of the resurrection" (^) (Athanasius, On the Incar- nation (^) of the (^) Word, paragraph 9). "When therefore our race had fallen from the highest grade of^ dignity,^ it^ could^ not^ be^ raised^ up^ and^ restored^ to^ its^ original^ place by any power of^ men^ or^ angels.^ Wherefore^ to^ remedy^ the^ evil^ and^ the^ ruin^ it^ was necessary that^ the^ infinite^ power of^ the^ Son^ of^ God, assuming the^ weakness^ of^ our flesh, should^ remove^ the^ infinite^ weight of^ sin, and^ should^ reconcile^ us^ to^ God^ in^ his blood" (^) (Catechism of the Council (^) of Trent, Pt. (^) I, chap. 3, quest. 3). 's (^) Thomas (^) Aquinas, the (^) greatest of catholic (^) theologians, but (^) expresses the com- mon Christian sentiment from the third (^) century on, when he ranks the (^) contemplative life, or^ life^ apart from^ the^ world, higher than^ active^ life^ in^ the^ midst^ of^ the^ world (Summa, ii, 2, quest. 182).
16 THE AMERICAN JOURNAL OF THEOLOGY
and (^) utterly unable to (^) help himself (^) (Rom., chap. 7). To (^) him, too, salvation is a (^) purely supernatural thing, accomplished by the (^) trans- formation of man from a (^) fleshly to a (^) spiritual being through the indwelling of^ the^ divine^ (Rom. chaps. 5-8). Paul's^ view^ of^ flesh and (^) spirit might be (^) very different from the view of those who came after (^) him, and his account of Christ's work unlike theirs in (^) many respects, but^ that^ man^ must^ be^ made^ over^ if^ he^ is^ not^ to^ perish eter- nally, and^ that^ this^ can^ be^ done^ only through divine^ power mediated by Jesus Christ-herein^ Paul^ and^ the^ historic^ church^ are^ at^ one. It was the same interest that led him to the belief in Christ's deity, without^ which^ his^ redemptive work^ would^ be^ impossible, and it was under the control of the same (^) general idea that he viewed the Christian life as (^) other-worldly. The Christian's (^) citizenship is in heaven (^) (Phil. 3:20), and the Christian's (^) duty is the crucifixion of his flesh (^) (Rom. 8:13; I^ Cor. (^) 9:27; Gal. (^) 5:24). He also viewed the church as the (^) mystical body of Christ (^) (Ephesians and (^) Colossians) and the sacraments as means of (^) grace, both (^) baptism and the Lord's Supper being brought into^ the^ scheme^ of^ redemption, and^ made^ con- tributory to^ the^ transformation^ of^ man's^ nature^ through his^ union with Christ. (^) (Romans 6:3, 4; Gal. (^) 3:27; I Cor. (^) io:16 ff.) In (^) one (^) important matter Paul's (^) Christianity was (^) very different from the (^) Christianity of those who came after him. (^) Upon the basis of his doctrine of the (^) indwelling Spirit, making the life of the Christ- ian man (^) divine, he constructed his remarkable and (^) inspiring theory of Christian (^) liberty, which meant freedom not (^) merely from (^) bondage to the^ Jewish law but^ from^ bondage to^ all law^ whatsoever-meant in fact the (^) complete repudiation of (^) legalism in^ every form. This the primitive church^ did^ not^ make^ its^ own^ nor^ the^ Catholic; and^ even
in Protestantism,in spite of Luther'smagnificentreassertionof it and
the declarations of some of the (^) great Protestant (^) symbols, it has been commonly very^ much^ of^ a^ dead^ letter.^ It^ is^ not^ Paul's^ principle at this (^) point that has (^) prevailed in (^) Christendom, but the notion of the primitive church, inherited^ from^ Judaism and^ congenial to^ the^ com- mon moral sentiment of the Graeco-Roman world of the (^) day, that the Christian life is the (^) keeping of God's law in order to the (^) enjoyment of a future reward. (^) Along this line Paul failed to influence the church. Its (^) legalism came from others than he. But with this
THE FOUNDER OF CHRISTIANITY I
exception all^ the^ great essential^ features^ of^ historic^ Christianity are to be found in him. But where did he (^) get them?^ Did (^) they come (^) ultimately from Jesus, and^ in^ handing them^ down^ to^ the^ church^ that^ came^ after^ him was Paul (^) simply passing on the (^) Christianity given to the world (^) by Christ himself? It is (^) comparatively easy to discover what Paul believed, and^ to^ trace^ the^ connection^ between^ him^ and^ later^ Christian- ity, but^ the^ relation^ between^ him^ and^ his^ Master^ it^ is^ exceedingly difficult to (^) determine, at (^) any rate in detail. It is with this (^) question particularly that^ the^ recent^ German^ discussions^ referred^ to^ at^ the beginning of^ this^ article^ have^ largely concerned^ themselves, dealing more (^) fully with the relations of Paul and Christ to each other than with their relations to the historic church and historic (^) Christianity. One (^) thing is clear. Between Paul and the (^) Jesus of the Fourth Gospel the^ connection^ is^ very close.^ Many of^ the^ essential^ features of Paul's (^) system reappear in that (^) Gospel: the (^) necessity of (^) regeneration changing a^ man^ from^ a^ fleshly to^ a^ spiritual being (John, chap. 3), union with Christ (^) (chap. I5), the (^) deity of Christ (^) (chap. I and (^) often), the sacramental view of (^) baptism and the Lord's (^) Supper (chap. 3 and (^) 6)--all these are found in the (^) teaching of the (^) Johannine Christ. But all the more (^) striking by contrast is the lack of all these elements in the (^) teaching of (^) Jesus as recorded in the (^) Synoptic Gospels. Of the essentially fleshly and^ evil^ nature^ of^ man^ nothing is^ said; nothing of the (^) consequent need of (^) regeneration; nothing of (^) mystical union with Christ, and^ nothing of^ his^ deity; and^ no^ trace^ of^ sacramentalism appears in^ connection^ with^ baptism and^ the^ Lord's^ Supper. It^ is^ not merely a^ difference^ of^ emphasis or^ form^ of^ statement.^ There^ is wanting altogether^ in^ the^ Synoptic^ Gospels^ the^ great^ and^ consistent body of^ teaching, which^ is^ not^ merely present, but^ is^ fundamental^ and controlling in^ the^ Fourth^ Gospel and^ the^ First^ Epistle of^ John. When
this is once recognizedit must be clearthat that body of teachingcame
from some other source than (^) Jesus himself; and the conclusion can hardly be^ resisted^ that^ it^ came^ from^ Paul, in^ whose^ writings it^ is^ first found, and^ whose^ own^ experience fully accounts^ for^ its^ origin. The despair into^ which^ he^ had^ fallen^ as^ a^ result^ of^ his^ total^ inability to keep the^ law^ of^ God,^ as^ he^ felt^ that^ it^ ought to^ be^ kept, a^ despair shared by no^ other^ Christian^ of^ the^ day, so^ far^ as^ we^ know;^ the^ revelation
THE FOUNDER OF CHRISTIANITY I
less and (^) imperishable heritage of the Christian church. Not all Christians have entered into (^) it, but its influence has been felt in (^) every age. Different^ as^ was^ Paul's^ temper and^ his^ general view^ of^ the world and (^) life, and (^) foreign to Christ's (^) thought as was his (^) metaphysical conception of^ deity, he^ yet so^ learned^ the^ lesson^ of^ the^ Master^ that he could voice his own (^) religious experience and the (^) experience of his converts in the wonderful words "Because (^) ye are sons God sent forth the (^) Spirit of his Son into our (^) hearts, crying, Abba Father" (Gal. 4:6). So^ far^ as^ there^ is^ anything distinctive^ in^ Christian^ piety, in the Christian's attitude toward God and communion with (^) him, it is due to (^) Jesus. Here he and not Paul is the Master. And not (^) simply in his attitude toward God but in his attitude toward his fellows (^) Jesus left a (^) permanent impression. At this (^) point, too, Paul learned from him'7 Had he (^) developed his own ethical ideals independently of^ Jesus he^ would^ infallibly have^ given the^ controlling place to^ righteousness, interpreted, in^ accordance^ with^ his^ dualistic view of (^) flesh, in (^) terms of (^) personal purity, or abstinence from (^) fleshly sin. As it (^) is, emphatic as he was in his assertion of the (^) supreme place of love for (^) others, he (^) yet failed to make it (^) actually supreme as (^) Jesus did, for^ he^ set^ along side^ of^ it^ not^ simply holiness, but^ also^ personal loyalty to^ Jesus, as^ Christian^ duties^ equal or^ even^ superior to^ love for one's (^) fellows.'s The (^) consequence was that Paul handed on to those who (^) came after him (^) an ethical ideal (^) fraught with the evils of confusion (^) and schism. Personal (^) loyalty to (^) Jesus might involve follow- ing him^ in^ his^ supreme devotion^ to^ the^ good of^ others, but^ it^ often meant (^) something very different; and the desire for holiness (^) might be entirely consonant^ with^ love^ for^ one's^ fellows, but^ it^ often^ crowded^ it out (^) altogether, so that asceticism became the characteristic Christian virtue. It is no accident (^) that asceticism has (^) played so (^) large a (^) part in Christian (^) history. The view of the (^) Christian life which (^) was the fruit of Paul's own (^) experience made it (^) inevitable, and when the (^) impression I7 Cf.^ Rom.^ I3:8; I^ Cor.^ I3; Gal.^ 5:I3ff.; Phil.^ 2:2ff.; Eph. 4:2, (^) I6; I^ Thes. 3:12, 4:9. Is Cf.^ II^ Cor.^ 5:14, 15 where Paul^ draws a conclusion from the love of (^) Christ, typical of^ a^ common^ Christian^ attitude^ ever^ since, which, beautiful as it is, shows clearly enough that^ Christ's^ spirit had^ not^ taken^ complete possession of him, as it had not of the (^) disciples who (^) preceded him and who first (^) changed the emphasis from (^) Jesus' message to^ his^ person.
20 THE AMERICAN JOURNAL OF THEOLOGY
of (^) Jesus' (^) teaching became less (^) controlling than it (^) was to (^) Paul it took complete possession of^ the^ field.^ But^ always the^ Master's^ principle of love and service has had some (^) place in Christian (^) teaching; often it has had illustrious (^) exponents, and has led to heroic deeds of (^) charity; and ever and anon it has dominated the life of (^) large sections of the church, as^ it^ is^ coming today to^ dominate^ the^ life^ of^ the^ world.^ Here too (^) Jesus himself was the founder and none of his (^) disciples, not even Paul or (^) John. In (^) recognizing God as his own Father and the (^) Father of all his brethren, in (^) making righteousness the faithful and (^) joyful doing of^ the^ Father's^ will^ and^ interpreting it^ in^ terms^ of^ love^ and^ service of one's (^) fellows, and, above (^) all, in (^) living with God and with men the life he was (^) summoning others to (^) live, Jesus gave Christianity to the world. In the last (^) analysis, whether (^) they fully understood it or not, it^ was^ the^ impression of^ his^ life^ that^ constituted^ the^ basis^ of^ his disciples' faith^ in^ him, the^ ultimate^ ground of^ their^ conviction^ of^ his messiahship and^ resurrection,^ and^ so^ the^ real^ foundation^ of^ the Christian church. The answer to our main (^) question is thus a divided one. Without Jesus Christianity and^ the^ Christian^ church^ would^ certainly not^ have been. In his name the church was founded and from faith in him it has drawn its (^) life; and (^) yet the movement was started and the institu- tion established (^) by other (^) men, and in most of its (^) principles and beliefs and (^) practices the influence^ of^ others^ has been (^) controlling. Never- theless his (^) gospel of divine fatherhood and human (^) brotherhood, which he not (^) only taught but (^) lived, commonly overlaid as it has been (^) by other (^) interests, has never been (^) wholly forgotten, and (^) today, when it is coming so^ prominently to^ the^ fore, Christians^ can^ recognize more clearly than^ at^ any other^ period that^ Christianity has^ really come from (^) Jesus himself, for^ that which^ is^ of^ greatest worth^ in^ it, and that which (^) chiefly accounts for its hold (^) upon the modern (^) world, was (^) given
it by him.
