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Jacob Riis
Jacob August Riis (May 3, 1849 - May 26, 1914) was a Danish
American social reformer, "muckraking" journalist and social
documentary photographer. He began social reform of
tenement housing in New York's Lower East Side, bringing in
parks, air ventilation, and awareness of the living conditions
of the poor.
TERM 2
Settlement
Houses
DEFINITION 2 An charitable effort put forth by the burgeoning middle class female college graduate, settlement houses were established as community centers for those living in the urban slums. The services they provided included free classes for the poor, recreational facilities, social activities, and political meeting-places to urge the poor into campaigns fighting for reform. These women and their settlement houses created social work as a profession, and were the first fingers of female empowerment as Progressives. TERM 3
Universal Negro Improvement Association
DEFINITION 3 The Universal Negro Improvement Association and African Communities League is a black nationalist fraternal organization founded by Marcus Mosiah Garvey. Budding off of the swing of the Harlem Renaissance in 1919, the UNIA promoted a "Back to Africa" movement, essentially a cooperation between African-Americans and their African-born counterparts to overthrow colonialism and regain their original lands, by utilizing African-American economic strength and social unity to reinforce racial segregation. Garvey took an extremist view of the racial tension in America, and made many enemies of many other prominent African American Activists. TERM 4
Chief Joseph
DEFINITION 4 Leader of the Native American tribe settled originally in the corner of Washington, Idaho, and Oregon, the Nez Perce, Chief Joseph was forced to relocate his people onto the Oklahoma reservation after the Indian wars on the central plains. The American government changed the intentions of their Treaty of Fort Laramie, creating the "Great Reservation" in the midwest. In 1877, Chief Joseph led his tribe out of the Oklahoma reservation, attempting to cross 1, miles of mountainous terrain to gain access to Canada. His people were stopped 30 miles before their goal by the pursuing federal troops. Appealing to Congress, Chief Joseph requested that his tribe be returned to their Northwest home, and despite public sentiment, a reservation was made for the Nez Perce in Washington. TERM 5
Sharecropping
DEFINITION 5 Sharecropping is a system of agriculture in which a landowner allows a tenant to use the land in return for a share of the crops produced on the land. This system was utilized as the only option for poor whites and newly freed African-Americans in the South after the Civil War. Keeping their tenants in a cyclic debt, the landowner charging interest for necessities bought on credit, in exchange for an even greater share of the crop. As the devastated economy in the South lowered prices on agricultural goods, there was no freedom from this contract; it was almost as though slavery had been continued on after abolition. This system also narrowed crop diversification and would eventually exhaust the soil in the South and Midwest.
Palmer Raids
The Palmer Raids were a series of raids in late 1919 and early 1920 by the United States Department of Justice intended to capture, arrest and deport radical leftists, especially anarchists, from the United States. These were instigated by the drama unfolding economically and civilly in America in 1919, as immediate post-war tension rose due to a lack of civil production causing a 77% price increase, falling agricultural staple prices, and the burgeoning "Red Scare" of communism. In 1919 alone, four million workers went on strike, and the small, but radical, Communist party committed real acts of terror, sending out bombs, one of which went off on the Attorney General Palmer's doorstep. 6,000 were apprehended, 556 deported as illegal immigrants. TERM 7
Dawes Act
DEFINITION 7 The Dawes Act of 1887 (also known as the General Allotment Act or the Dawes Severalty Act of 1887), adopted by Congress in 1887, authorized the President of the United States to survey American Indian tribal land and divide it into allotments for individual Indians. Instated by Senator Henry Dawes of Massachusetts, and rife with the Puritanical work ethic of New England, the Dawes Act was in fact an effort of "charity" towards the Native Americans; it was seen as an effort towards their civilization. This act ended tribal rule among Indians, and gave 160-acre parcels of land to family heads in trust of the American government. All Native land not redrawn into families was sold, the revenue given to a fund for schools presided over by the Bureau of Indian Affairs. The stipulation of this agreement was that no cultural practices of the Native Americans were to be continued. The enforcement of this law crippled Native American families, giving them harsh farmland and inadequate tools, but especially the students forced into boarding schools to be taught the "American Way"; from 155 million acres of American land under Indian possession in 1887, only 77 million remained by 1890. TERM 8
"New South"
DEFINITION 8 The reaction of business leaders and media to the lagging economy after the Civil War, the development of a "New South" or an industrial economy in what had been a system of slavery and plantations was essential to reconstruction. This included the establishment of railroads, characteristic industries such as textiles, tobacco, logging, and mining, and an effort to break away from Northern dependence. Despite the willingness of poor (white) sharecroppers to relocate to an industrial occupation, Southern business leaders did not see the benefits of the evolving economy; Northern investors utilized the Southern business boom for the workers willingness to accept lower wages and longer hours than their Northern counterparts. Agricultural development was stunted by the inefficient sharecropping system, and the hierarchy of the white Southern plantation holder remained in place. TERM 9
Open Door
Policy
DEFINITION 9 This policy set in place by America to ensure naval access to China, gave equal distribution of trade between all imperialistic nations and China, while "protecting" China's sovereignty. Backlash from America's involvement in the Boxer rebellion, other European nations felt obliged to agree to the treaty; this agreement mediated the desires of the world's imperialistic nations in regard to China, without giving the Chinese government any authority to regulate the trade. TERM 10
Andrew Carnegie
DEFINITION 10 Andrew Carnegie was a Scottish American industrialist who led the enormous expansion of the American steel industry in the late 19th century. The self-made rags to riches man embodied the American Dream of hard work, thrift, and results; he inspired many of the lower class to strive to better themselves. His Bessemer steel mills in Pittsburgh garnered him one of the most prestigious wealths the world has ever seen. The background Carnegie came from inerred a respect for the common man, and he is known for his philanthropic twists, giving much of his earnings to the Carnegie Foundation. He is also responsible for the business model of vertical integration.
Muller v. Oregon (1908)
The Supreme Court case that established a ten hour work day for women; Muller was sued for making his female employee work a twelve hour day, and his case was brought before the Court and struck down. This is primarily due to the WTUL (National Women's Trade Union League) and it's political prowess; at the time, they were fighting to secure higher wages, improved working conditions, and specific legislation protecting the idea that women were physiologically weaker than men, and deserved allowance for that. TERM 17
Haymarket Bombing
DEFINITION 17 The Haymarket affair was the aftermath of a bombing that took place at a labor demonstration on Tuesday May 4, 1886, at Haymarket Square in Chicago. Organized by the radical anarchists of the time, and not the Knights of Labor as was assumed by the public, was a protest against police violence; during the rally of 1,500 people, a bomb was set off upon police involvement, and their crossfire, not the bomb, killed seven policemen and four protesters. Despite condemnation by the Knights of Labor, this event discouraged involvement in labor unions, and capitalist business men attacks those who supported unions in the media as radical and un-American. TERM 18
The Fourteen Points
DEFINITION 18 Woodrow Wilson's attempt at ending the European conflict of WWI without giving rise to future wars, this statement was given ten months before the meeting of leaders at Versailles. Wilson described that America had fought this war to create self- determination for all people, open diplomacy, free trade, a just not punitive peace, and a League of Nations to govern the small and large nations of the world with as little military involvement as possible. The only point of the fourteen that was taken on my the European nations was the League; induction was not ratified by the U.S. Congress. TERM 19
Verticle Integration
DEFINITION 19 Corporate business model employed to organize and cut production costs in which a system of firms were connected to each contribute to the final product. One company would control each individual aspect of the process, thus eliminating the need for middle men and coordinated efficiency to prevent miscommunication between the segments. Andrew Carnegie was the business leader most well-known for this type of management, his motto "Watch the costs and the profits will take care of themselves." TERM 20
"Second" Klu Klux Klan
DEFINITION 20 The resurgence of nativism beliefs that led to the expansion of the mission of the KKK from terrorizing freed slaves and their supporters to including other ethnic groups such as Jews, Catholics, and really anyone who allegedly violated ethical community life. Middle-class Protestant families desired more to defend their traditional values, and to reverse what was seen as a degradation of American society in the 1920s, than to inflict blatant hatred upon African Americans. However, this cultish following often resorted to violence, beating, kidnapping, torturing, and sometimes murdering their victims.
Booker T. Washington
Booker Taliaferro Washington was an African-American educator, author, orator, and advisor to presidents of the United States. Born a slave, Washington advocated an acceptance of racial segregation, a passive approach to defeating inequality through education and economic development, as well as racial unity and strength. He was widely recognized for his mediation of the racial tension by both African Americans and white leaders. Many other prominent African American speakers on racial equality condemned Washington's slow moving approach to the social issue, however used his words of self-management and thrift as templates for their own movements. TERM 22
Laissez Faire
DEFINITION 22 Laissez-faire is an economic system in which transactions between private parties are relatively free from government interference such as restrictions, privileges, tariffs, and subsidies. This policy, set down in the Wealth of Nations, was employed by the business tycoons and their conservative counterparts in the U.S. government to prevent regulation; it was widely believed that thrift, hard work, initiative and the like were all that were required to succeed in industrialized America. The adoption of this economic policy created great inequalities in wealth distribution, the development of monopolies, and was the burgeoning of capitalism. TERM 23
The Noble and Holy Order of the Knights of
Labor
DEFINITION 23 The Knights of Labor was created as an opponent to counter the mighty wealth disparity created by industrialization. The business tycoons were so powerful that the single man's voice was lost, and in order to advocate eight-hour work days, no child labor, and equal pay for women the union was born. The Knights of Labor were one of the only labor unions to accept all trades, ethnicities, and genders, however still excluding Chinese Americans. Despite the intentions of the organization, the Knights of Labor made several strikes against the railroads that were successful, as well as one universal strike for eight hour work days. The group was disbanded due to the Haymarket Square bombings. TERM 24
The Sherman Anti-Trust Act
DEFINITION 24 A bill passed in 1890 declaring monopolies on interstate trade illegal. The intention was not to end corporate influence, however to reign in the loopholes that big business was not afraid to take to further their investments, and encourage competition. United States v. E.C. Knight Company(1895) rendered this legislation essentially pointless, as the case declared that manufacturing was a local activity and not subject to congressional interference. TERM 25
Plessy v. Ferguson
DEFINITION 25 Plessy v. Ferguson, 163 U.S. 537 (1896), is a landmark United States Supreme Court decision upholding the constitutionality of state laws requiring racial segregation in public facilities under the doctrine of "separate but equal." The Jim Crow laws disenfranchising African Americans as well as socially separating the two races had been created upon the idea that African Americans were inherently placed upon a lower social order, and could not be raised up to the level of whites because of legislation. These laws lasted until 1965.
Coney Island
The first physical reaction to the arrival of American leisure
time in the 1880s, Coney Island was the most spectacular of
the amusement parks that sprung up around the nation. With
higher wages and regulated working hours, even the lower
class could appreciate a Sunday on Coney Island's
rollercoaster, the first ever built.
TERM 32
1924 Immigration
Act
DEFINITION 32 This Act, developed on the nativism budding in America, prevented the immigration of more than 2% of the number of people of the same nationality already residing in the U.S. in the year 1890 from immigrating. This was primarily established to keep peoples from eastern and southern Europe out, because of an anti-semitic movement within America at the time and push factors from Russia and Europe; Protestant movements in America were threatened by the Catholic and Jewish influence. As well, this legislation continued the prevention of Eastern Asian immigration. TERM 33
Muckraking
DEFINITION 33 The term muckraker refers to reform-minded journalists who wrote largely for all popular magazines and continued a tradition of investigative journalism reporting; muckrakers often worked to expose social ills and corporate and political corruption. In the forefront of this movement you see men like Upton Sinclair, Jacob Riis, and Lincoln Steffens and women like Ida Tarbell and Elizabeth Seamen reported on social issues created by industrialization, being the voice that spoke for the masses. Their influence forced the American government to acknowledge the public's presence in industrial business matters, and create governmental protection from corporations. TERM 34
The "New Negro"
DEFINITION 34 The changing social and ideological intentions of African Americans as a result of their northern migration during and after WWI, this challenge to the traditional role of African Americans was pushed by the second generation after emancipation. Educated, motivated, and eager to participate in modern society, the "New Negro" was proud of their racial identity, desired equal participation in America's government, and made a significant impact on the arts in the 1920s. The Harlem Renaissance gave an outlet for original thought as to the routine of the middle class in America, with new exposees of art, music, and popular culture. TERM 35
Populists
DEFINITION 35 The political party born from the Farmers' Alliances in the 1880s, that proposed a graduated income tax, a sub-treasury system, tariff reduction, government ownership of banks and railroads, free silver and other governmental reforms that would cater to the "little man". Feeding off of the economic depression of 1893, the Populist party had several elected officials on the State level, the Populist party lasted until 1896 with the Presidential election that favored McKinley, the ebbing of the depression, and the increasing industrial economy. However, their platform of reform continued on into the twentieth century with the Progressive movement.
Social Darwinism
Social Darwinism is a modern name given to various theories of society that emerged in the United Kingdom, North America, and Western Europe in the 1870s, and which are claimed to have applied biological concepts of natural selection and survival of the fittest to sociology and politics. This impacted the social hierarchy as it was seen through America's eyes well into the 20th Century, as it reinforced the concept of laissez-faire principles in the economy. This also began the science of epigenetics, which focused on the "purity" of genetic pools as the result of a civilized society; this began the sterilization programs throughout America in the 1920s. TERM 37
The Triangle Shirtwaist Factory
Fire
DEFINITION 37 The fire that killed 146 workers in a garment factory in Greenwich Village, New York City, and directly demonstrated the need for reform of workplace safety. The International Ladies Garment Worker's Unions and the corporations had recently compromised on minimum wage law and work day hours, however had sacrificed workplace safety in exchange. The death of these Jewish and Italian women directly influenced factory reform, and the workers and politicians of New York went on the offensive as these girls were average aged 19, and had been directly killed by inadequacies in workplace safety. TERM 38
Political Machine
DEFINITION 38 In the 1800s, political corruption had just begun to have an impact on the local level, as cities expanded in complication and population. The early political machine centered around a single political "boss" who kept his position using loyal ties throughout city districts, or wards. Each ward was given a representative who would answer both to the people and the boss, and maintained ties within the wards. The machine aided the poor in small ways, and gave businessmen allowances to conduct their trades, as well as facilitating the underground lawless organizations for profit. These political machines were often very corrupt, and had no ethical issue with fixing the ballot or financial fraud. TERM 39
Eugene Debs
DEFINITION 39 Eugene Victor "Gene" Debs was an American union leader, one of the founding members of the Industrial Workers of the World (IWW or the Wobblies), and five times the candidate of the Socialist Party of America for President of the United States. Debs believed that labor organizing was an integral part of a worker's rights of political and economic citizenship. He led the Pullman strike in 1893, and was jailed as the strike collapsed. Debs Marxist views led him to desire nonviolent, democratic socialism and explained the concept in terms of community and interdependence within the workforce; his words appealed to industrial, agricultural, and mining occupations. TERM 40
Pendleton Civil Service Reform Act
DEFINITION 40 Pushed by the wealthy and upper-middle class Americans, this Act reformed the political machines in urban America to allow civil service that would function on the basis of merit and not corruption. This required applicants for federal jobs to be examined for ability, as opposed to political connections, while the system in place for the poor was expected to disappear with cronyism.
