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The Systems
of
Indian Philosophy
By
V. R. Gandhi, B.A., M.R.A.S. Barrister-at-Law
Edited By
Dr. K. K. Dixit Research Officer L. D. Institute of Indology Ahemdabad
Shri Mahavira Jaina Vidyalaya
Bombay 400 036
PUBLISHER'S NOTE
It was really a happy coincidence that a manuscript of a hitherto unpublished wok of Shri Virchand Raghavji Gandhi was discovered in his birth- place, Mahuva (Saurashtra), and that too in his centenary year. In his centenary your 1964, Shri Chandulal Vardhman Shah, one of us and Shri Kantilal Dahyabhai Kora, Registrar of Shri Mahavir Jaina Vidyalaya along with a past student Shri Pannalal R. Shah visited Mahuva. Their intention behind the visit was to collect from his birth- place the available material that can evoke the sacred memory of that eminent scholar and effective speaker. And we should say that the visit proved to be a pilgrimage. There they discovered and obtained certificates, writing, a silver casket and a gold medal along with two note-books containing the present lectures in his own hand-writing. It is really fortunate for us that these two note- books have been saved from destruction during a rather long period of 63 years even after the death of that scholar.
We handed over the note- books for perusal to Pt. Shri Dalsukhbhai Malavania, Director of Shri Lalbhai Dalpatbhai Bharatiya Sanskriti Vidyamandir and one of General Editors of Jains Agama Series along with Pujya Shri Punyavijayji Maharaj. While reading them, he found that they contained Shri V. R. Gandhi's illuminating lectures on the systems of Indian Philosophy. It is these lectures which Shri V. R. Gandhi delivered before American audience in attractive and popular style. Fearless and frank presentation of the subject- matter is the special feature of these lectures. Thus the present work containing them is really invaluable and the first of its kind. Hence we are very happy that it is published by our Institution.
It was very difficult to edit them critically on the basis of a handwritten manuscript and to print them in their pristine form. But the cooperation extended by Shri Lalbhai Dalpatbhai Bharatiya Sanskriti Vidyamandir, Ahmedabad, made our task very easy. Vidyamandir allotted the work of editing the lectures to Dr. K. K. Dixit, a scholar of many subjects and especially of philosophy. Dr. Dixit has taken great pains in carrying out the work successfully. We express our gratitude to the management of Vidyamandir for extending active cooperation. And we heartily thank Dr. Dixit for critically editing these lectures and for writing an elaborate thought-provoking introduction to the present work.
The evaluation of the present work, and its author has been made by Dr. Dixit in his impartial and scholarly introduction as also by Dr. Pt. Sukhlaji in his `Something About Late Shri V. R. Gandhi.' We know that one of the Factors that inspired him to write it, is his admiration for Shri V. R. Gandhi's academic activities. The original Gujarati of this English note is included in this work in order that the reader can have the benefit of reading Panditji's thoughts in his own words.
The late Shri Umedchand Dolatchand Barodia, a close associate of Shri Mahavira Jaina Vidyalaya for over 40 years, had assigned to the Institution his endowment paid-up insurance policy of Rs. 2,000/- in 1963 with a request to utilize the amount when realized for publications activities, as may be suggested by his two sons, Shri Shantibhai and Shri Kantibhai. On his death three years later, the two devoted sons who are past students of this Institution suggested that the insurance money may be utilized in the publication of the present book, whose author, Shri V. R. Gandhi was held in high esteem by their father as an outstanding representative of India at the Congress of World Religions in America and for his learned lectures in America and Europe. This suggestion coincided well with the devotion in which he held knowledge and religion.
Shri Umedchandbhai was born in Chuda, Saurashtra, in 1883 A.D. and was brought up in a atmosphere of education and culture. His father Shri Dolatchandbhai was one of the first Arts Graduates of the Bombay University and was the author of a number of books. Having such a laudable legacy of culture and knowledge, Shri Umedchandbhai had a distinguished career both at school and college. He won a University prize, besides being a
`The Systems of Indian Philosophy' is published here for the first time. It contains lectures which late V. R. Gandhi delivered before American audience of the common people, while he was on his journey to attend the World Congress of Religions held for the first time in the United States of America in 1893 A.D.
The manuscript of the work, written in the author's own handwriting, remained unknown for very long. And fortunately it was discovered just in his centenary year. It is really a matter of happy co-incidence that Dr. K. K. Dixit, who himself is a sincere student of Indian and Western philosophy as well as a proficient scholar of ancient Indian language-Sanskrit, Prakrit, Pali, etc., has carefully edited the present work. It is an outstanding characteristic of Dr. Dixit that whatever he writes, he writes after mature consideration, without any partiality or exaggeration.
Dr. Dixit has written an elaborate introduction to this work. Any sensible Enquirer, who sincerely tries to understand it, will find no difficulty in properly evaluating these lectures. When I think on this line I feel that there remains nothing particular for me to write. But because I hold Gandhi in high esteem and because I have good faith in Shri Mahavira Jaina Vidyalaya , the Institute that publishes the present work, I am inspired to say few words.
For the last so many years, I have been hearing one harping note. It is this that the Jaina tradition should engage scholars to produce works on the cultural subjects like Religion, Philosophy, Literature, Art, etc. This note has originated from our special contact with the Western culture. But the Jaina tradition has formed the tendency that whatever the scholars write by themselves or whatever they write at the instance of others should all be published or got published in English. All the cultured Jainas who have got Western education uniformly, it has been noticed, desire that all the material pertaining to all the cultural aspects of the Jaina tradition should be made available in English. The desire is no doubt noble. But it has arisen mainly from the blind imitation of others and mental temperament devoid of deep understanding regarding publications in English language.
On the one hand, everywhere is evinced this noble desire for publishing or getting published the works in English, while on the had indifference is noticed towards the reading and study of the published English works which are capable of satisfying the thirst for knowledge, not only of the common people but also of the eminent scholars: if this contradiction is found among the business-minded Jaina laymen, there is no special cause of our getting disheartened; but if this defect is seen even among Jains ascetics who have pledged to devote themselves to the acquisition of knowledge, then we cannot but say that there is something wrong with the order of Jaina monks.
There are four sects of Jaina tradition. We may take consolation in thinking that there is no cause for complaining much against the three sects other than the idol-worshipping Svetambara one. But it is this idol worshipping Svetambara sect that sent Shri Gandhi to
America as a representative of the entire Jaina tradition. And about 75 years before, he successfully fulfilled this mission there. Moreover, he wrote such works in English relating to Jaina tradition as is written by no other Indian - especially Jaina-scholar even to this day. But alas! Rarely do we find the deserving English-knowing persons who read and study these works.
Gandhi's works pertaining to the three subjects related to Jain tradition have been published before many years; and the standard of these works is so high that no author, as far as I understand, has reached that standard in producing works pertaining to those subjects. Jaina Yoga (mysticism), Jaina Philosophy and Jaina Karma doctrine are the three subjects, which Gandhi presented in English with depth and clarity. If at least some solitary ascetic or monk had studied these works, then he would have made a considerable contribution to the fund of knowledge in possession of the Jainas, would have translated or got translated them into Hindi, Gujarati and other Indian languages and thus would have finally helped us in giving a new mould to the curriculum of the Pathasalas (institutions conduction classes of Religion and Philosophy) conducted by Jaina tradition.
Were I to tell my own story, I should say that I heard the name of Shri V. R. Gandhi from no Pannyasa , no scholar and no Acarya except the late Vijayavallabhsuriji, who belonged to idol-worshipping Svetambara tradition. When they knew not even the name of Shri V. R. Gandhi then what to talk of his works!
Today this narrow-mindedness has almost disappeared. So first I suggest that the faithful translation of all the three works into Hindi, Gujarati and other Indian languages should be published without delay. And they should be included in the curriculum of the classes of Religion and Philosophy, conducted by the Jaina tradition. Only then the mind of the new generation would become broad-based instead of becoming narrow, as also the student of the neglected Pathasalas will assume some luster resulting from this knowledge.
This publication embodying a collection of lectures on six systems of Indian Philosophy is really important not only for the Jaina scholars but also for other Indian and non-Indian scholars. It is important for three reasons: first, they were addressed to the educated common people of America, by a representative of Jaina tradition, who was above all sectarian spirit. Secondly they reveal the author's deep and extensive study of the subject; and their presentation is natural. Thirdly, English language in which they are written is pure and pristine to such extent that even the learned editor has found no scope for any correction.
These lectures on the systems of Indian philosophy should be translated into Hindi as early as possible so that the students of different levels can understand them. In short, then only the students can avail of the faithful presentation of the subject, which they need most. Moreover, the study of these lectures will prove fruitful to them for the further study of the voluminous works on the subject.
CONTENTS
Publisher's Note Something About Late Shri V. R. Gandhi
Pt. Dr. Sukhalalji
Abbreviations
Introduction
The Sankhya Philosophy
- Introductory
- An end of the threefold miseries aimed at (Comparison with Spinoza).
- How a philosophical tenet like this originates (the Indian situation contrasted with the Western)
- The threefold misery result forms the properties of prakriti while prakriti is eternal and co-existent with purusa.
- Kapila's is theory of evolution (i.e. a denial of something coming out of nothing) incidental refutation of the theory that the world is an illusory appearance
- How is Prakriti a `mere name
- Prakriti defined and the 25 elements (including purusa ) enumerated; the course of prakriti's evolution traced
- Proofs for the existence of soul and delineation of the nature of soul; incidental refutation of the `one soul' doctrine of Vedanta
- Not real but only apparent bondage and emancipation of purusa
- Theism rejected
- A critical remark on the Sankhya notion of the purpose of prakriti's evolution
- Some further details concerning prakriti's evolution
- The doctrine of a gross and a subtle body
- The means of moksa
- The nature of moksa
- The advocacy of the idea of nature working under fixed laws
- The advocacy of the idea of `liberation of all'
- Three points of criticism by way of conclusion
II The Yoga Philosophy
- Introductory; the mutual relationship between the physical, psychological, moral and spiritual planes (in Yoga and in the other systems of Indian philosophy)
- The concept of mind ( citta ) introduced
- Various views as to the nature of mind enumerated and the Sankhya concept of sattvapatti, Moksa or kaivalya explained
- Yoga Posits God over and above the Sankhya philosophy's 25 elements
- As contrasted to Sankhya yoga is highly practical in character
- Yoga understood as citta -vrtti - nirodha
- The five types of citta -vrtti -nirodha
- Vairagya and abhyasa the means of citta
- Incidental criticism of those denying the possibility of extra -sensory knowledge
- As a result of yoga soul controls the mind rather than vice versa
- The two types of samadhi and the eight stages that lead thereto
- (a) Five yams
the polar star for its object
- The result of the Samyama with the bodily parts (i.e. Nabhi - cakra etc.) for its object
- The result of the Samyama with purusa for its object
- The result of the Samyama with pranas (i.e. udana etc.) for its object
- The result of the Samyama with the ether ear relationship and the ether-body relationship for its object
- Non-attachment to the above miraculous powers is the ideal
- How the yogin assumes different bodies (incidentally, how a being's act yield result)
- How the yogin attains kaivalya
III The Naya philosophy
- Introductory; the precise relationship between the Naya and Vaisesika
- The Naya notion of uddesa , laksana and pariksa
- The sixteen Naya topics explained
- Transition to the Vaisesika
- The seven Vaisesika Categories enumerated
- The seven Vaisesika Categories further elaborated:
- The Vaisesika Categories further elaborated:
(a) The Dravyas that are both eternal and non-eternal (b) The Dravyas that are eternal
IV Mimamsa
1.To be neglected inasmuch as it is not system of philosophy but rather a system of
ritualism
V Vedanta Philosophy
- The Upanisadic basis of the Vedanta philosophy laid bare with the help of the Uddalaka - Svetaketu dialogue of the Chhandogya Upanisad
- The mutual relationship between Mimamsa and Vedanta
- A summary account of Sankara's version of Vedanta : (a) The nature of Brahma, Maya and Jagat (both Jan.^ and Chaitan ) (b) The nature of bondage (c) The nature of moksa
- A summary account of Ramanuj's version of Vedanta : (a) The nature of Brahma and Jagat (both Jan.^ and Chaitana ) (b) The nature of bondage and moksa
- Sankara and Ramanuja compared and contrasted
- Further elaboration of Sankara's view: (a) Sankar on Brahma's causality of the world (b) The gradual development of Sankara's philosophy out of the old Upanisads (c) Brahma and Brahma (d) For Sankara the jiva is Brahma (not Brahma) and it is Brahma (not becomes Brahma)
(e) Sankara's view contrasted with that of Yoga (f) Sankara explains away-and with ease the Upanisadic passage where they speak as if the jiva and Jagat too are independent realities (like Brahma) (g) Vedanta-lie all idealism-goes against commonsense (h) Vedanta accepts the idea of God and of His worship-from a practical stand- point (i) The knowledge had from the practical standpoint is supplanted by that had from the ultimate standpoint. (j) Only Sata , Chaitan and Ananda can be attributed to the highest Brahma (that can be known only as subject but never as an object) (k) But the creation of the world on the part of Brahma, an individual's individuality, the worship of Brahma on the part of individual are all `practical truths not falsehoods (l) Various analogies to explain Brahma's causality of the world ultimately replaced by Sankara's doctrine of vivarta (m) Brahma's causality of the world is case of Avidya (i.e. a case of appearance caused by ignorance) (n) Bharatitratha on the mechanism of removing Avidya
ABBREVIATIONS
SS - Sankhya Sutras SK - Sankhya Karika Ani. - Aniruddha 's Commentary on SS Vijn. - Vijnanabhiksu's Commentary on SS YS - Yoga Sutras Vy. - Vyas's commentary on YS HP- Hatha - yoga - pradipika NS- Naya Sutras VS - Vedanta Sutras
INTRODUCTION
Here we have a lecture series dealing with the systems of Indian Philosophy and delivered by V. R. Gandhi in 1894 at Chicago. These lectures are important as much because they deal with the systems of Indian Philosophy as because V. R. Gandhi delivered them. For V. R. Gandhi (who was born in 1864 and died young in 1901) was one of the extraordinary Indians of his time. He was a born Jaina and (what is more noteworthy) a convinced Jaina, and it was as representative of the Jaina sect that he took part in the Parliament of Religions held at Chicago in 1893 (better known to most of us on account of Swami Vivekananda's participation in it). But few Jainas before and after him would equal him in their capacity to make the Jaina positions comprehensible to a non-Jaina audience and in their capacity to adopt a most non-sectarian approach while dealing with a problem. Gandhi's many lectures meant to undertake an exposition of the various aspects of Jainism (and his article "Philosophy and Psychology of the Jains" published in Mind Vol. I, No. 4)-most of them available to us in the collection published under the title "The Jaina Philosophy"- can well form for those who know English a best introduction to this branch of studies in Indian culture. Particularly noteworthy in this connection are the lectures (delivered in England) dealing with the Jaina doctrine of Karma. The verbatim notes of these lectures- which were in possession of H. Warren and were probably taken down by himself- were later on published under the title "The Karma Philosophy". V. Glasenapp, the recognized Western authority on Jainism in general and the Jaina doctrine of Karma in particular, duly acknowledges his indebtedness to these lectures of Gandhi which even today remain an independent source of enlightenment on the subject in spite of the Gedrman scholar's doctoral dissertation devoted to the same. The "doctrine of Karma ", subscribed to by the Vedicists, Buddhi sts, Jainas and numerous other religious sects of India, holds a crucial importance in the development of the characteristic ethical notions of the ancient Indians, and the Jaina version of it is illuminating in more ways than one. It is
really a pity that even so lucid an exposition of the Jaina doctrine of Karma as was undertaken by Gandhi remains unread even by those who otherwise evince sincere and serious interest in the problems of Indian ethics.
Of course, in order to derive best advantage out of Gandhi's writings things will have to be looked from Gandhi's standpoint. There are times when Gandhi speaks as a Jaina, times when he speaks as a Hindu, times when he speaks as an Indian, and times when he speaks as a plain man. While speaking as a Jaina, a Hindu, or an Indian, Gandhi is in most cases positive in his assertions, that is, he mostly brings to the fore the merits of the case he is advocating; but occasionally he is forced to come out sometimes sharply enough against what he considers to be a gross misunderstanding of his case on somebody's part. He is bitterest in his condemnation of the Christian missionaries, come to India from abroad to propagate their cult. But his motives in doing so are extremely mixed. Gandhi is against the Christian missionaries because the latter consider the Hindu to be ethically degraded. Now Gandhi would not answer this slander by talking ill of Christians en masse, not only because he had nothing, but praise for what he considered to be Christ's true teaching, but also because he had come to cultivate warm friendship with a vast number of noble-minded Christians both in England and in America. Gandhi therefore took care to distinguish between the ordinary Christian residing in England or America and the Christian missionaries who come to India from abroad; in his lectures like "India's Message to America" and "Impressions of America" he paid handsome tributes to the former, in those like "Have Christian Missions to India been Successful?" he cursed the latter. As an Indian Gandhi was painfully conscious of his country's dependent status as also of the economic exploitation this country was subjected to, but his observations on these matters are mostly in the form of obiter dicta. For example, in the course of his "India's Message to America" he makes bold to say: "You know, my brothers and sisters, that we are not an independent nation; we are subjects of Her Gracious Majesty Queen Victoria, the 'defender of the faith', but if we were a nation in all that that name implies, with our own government and our own rulers, with our laws and institutions controlled by us free and independent, I affirm that we should seek to establish and for ever maintain peaceful relations with all the nations of the world" (The Jaina Philosophy, p. 264). A still more revealing passage-occurring in "Have Christian Missions to India been Successful?"- runs as follows: "Ladies and gentlemen, you have heard all yours lives from your missionaries who claim to be the messengers of God how ugly, wretched, immoral, and vile the heathen Indians are;... but did you ever hear from these missionaries-the messengers of love to all mankind-of the tyrannies that are perpetrated over the Hindus in India? Government has abolished duties on fine dry goods from Liverpool and Manchester for the purpose of finding a good market in India and has levied a 200 per cent tax on the manufacture of salt in India to maintain a costly government. Did they ever tell you about all such things? If they have not, whose messengers you will call these people, who always side with tyranny, who throw their cloak of hypocritical religion over murderers and all sorts of criminals who happen to belong to their religion or to their country?" (The Jaina Philosophy, pp. 85-86). Thus Gandhi dreamt of an India politically and economically independent but he
the same as was subsequently followed by Radhakrishnan and others in India. This circumstance is a good deal responsible for the somewhat lop-sided development of the studies related to Indian Philosophy that have been conducted in the West and in India in the course of past hundred years or so. Gandhi's keen eyes could see the danger inherent in the situation, as should be evident from the following comment he made (in his article published in Mind) by way of taking mild exception to a statement occurring in the Prospectus of the newly founded journal that was to acquire a big name afterwards: "This statement seems to whisper in my ears that Hindu metaphysics has not been able to offer the right solution of the various intricate problems of life that are staring in the face of the Western thinkers. By "Hindu" is meant, of course, the special phase of Vedanta philosophy that has been presented to the people of West during the last four years. I am glad that the truth in Vedanta has come to the shores of this country. It would have been much better if the whole truth lying back of the different sectarian systems of India had been presented, so that a complete instead of a partial view of India's wisdom might have satisfied the craving of deep students." (The Jaina Philosophy, p. 14). Be that as it may, the systems of Indian Philosophy can be fruitfully studied also from a Western standpoint different from that of Kant and from an Indian standpoint different form that of Sankara. Nay, it is doubtless desirable that these systems be studied from the various standpoints that dominate the Western philosophical scene as also from those that dominate the Indian philosophical scene. Gandhi's present lectures on the systems of Indian Philosophy are important inasmuch as they give us an idea of how a liberal Jaina looks at-and places before an American audience-the philosophical heritage of his motherland.
Gandhi well realized that grounding in Sanskrit is indispensable for one seeking to know something of India's past glory. That is why he once argues: "The many learned missionary gentlemen who have written or who have exhausted their oratory power in denouncing India, can only prove their claim to be an authority when they show their knowledge of the Hindu religion, and this can only be proven by their knowledge of Sanskrit. When they can converse with me in this language I Shal consider their words worthy of consideration and not before". ("Have Christian Missions, etc.", The Jaina Philosophy, p. 86) Of course, Gandhi was not only not blind to the existence of Western Sanskritists but was himself a personal friend of good many of them; (what he was there criticizing was the ignorant debunking of things Indian on the part of the Christian missionaries come from abroad). Not only that, he actually made best use of the English translations done by Western scholars of the Sanskrit, Prakrit and Pali texts, though when need arose, he would prepare his own English version of an Indian text passage that was in no way inferior to that of the best translators of those days. As a matter of fact, Gandhi's general mastery over English language was strikingly perfect. However, a thorough grounding in Sanskrit and a good command over English would not have sufficed for Gandhi's need; what he above all required was a capacity to grasp the spirit of the teaching imparted by an ancient Indian text, he took up for study. And with this capacity too Gandhi was endowed in good measure. A ringing confirmation of this comes from his present lectures on the systems of Indian Philosophy, where we find him taking great pains to tell us just, what a Sankhya
Philosopher, a Yoga Philosopher, a Naya - Vaisesika Philosopher, a Vedanta Philosopher or a Buddhi st Philosopher has to say on this or that question. Of course, the very fact that Gandhi chooses to discuss certain topics and not others in the course of his treatment of a particular system of Indian Philosophy betrays his own likes and dislikes; the more so is the case with the critical remarks he now and then passes against a non-Jaina system. But that has to be the feature of all principled exposition of the tenets of Indian Philosophy (for that matter, of any philosophy whatsoever); and Gandhi was certainly a man of principles. What we are emphasizing is that Gandhi's own ideological affiliation did no prevent him from making maximum effort to get at the heart of the various positions developed by the various non Jaina systems of Indian Philosophy. In his lecture on Jainism-which is the last lecture in the present series- Gandhi enumerates what he considers to be the four questions basic to all philosophical investigation; they are:
(i) What is the nature of the universe? (ii) What is the nature of God? (iii) What is the nature and what the destiny of soul? (iv) What are the laws of the soul's life?
[the questions (iii) and (iv) are closely related, the former inquiring about the general nature of a soul, its bondage and its liberation, the later inquiring about the functioning of the "law of Karma "]. And his exposition of Jainism is in the form of a discussion of the Jaina answer to these four questions. In the case of the rest of the systems there is no ordered treatment of these questions, but there too Gandhi is always taking up one or another from among these very questions (which is but to be expected in view of Gandhi's understanding of what constitutes a philosophical investigation being what it is ). And it should not be difficult for an intelligent reader to make out for himself how this or that system differs from Jainism on this or that question. But Gandhi, almost totally unmindful of this difference, continues his painstaking works of exposition. As for the points of criticism occasionally raised against a non-Jaina system they seem to have been balanced by an occasionally showered praise. In any case, Gandhi is not obsessed by the fact that each of the non-Jaina systems considered by him differs from Jainism more or less sharply on some questions or others.
Let us now take critical note of the facts about Indian Philosophy that Gandhi thought fit to convey to his American audience and of his manner of doing so Gandhi has taken up for consideration the following systems: Sankhya , Yoga, Naya (and Vaisesika ). Mimamsa, Vedanta , Buddhism and Jainism. And it will be convenient and useful for us to discuss his treatment of these systems one by one.
1. SANKHYA
Gandhi bases his account of the Sankhya system on the version of it that we find in the Sankhya Sutras (a version not essentially different from that found in the Sankhya Karika
philosophical system chiefly devoted to practical problems while touching upon the problems of theory as well). That is why Gandhi begins his lecture on Sankhya by telling us that the Sankhya philosopher aims at a cessation of the threefold miseries while in the course of his exposition he incidentally tells us as to what according to the Sankhya philosopher is the nature of moksa and what the means of attaining it, for the rest his concern is with the metaphysical tenets of the Sankhya system.
2. YOGA
Gandhi rightly noted that the Yoga system of philosophy- more properly, the system of philosophy propounded by Pantanjali in his Yoga Sutras - differs but little from Sankhya so far as theoretical questions are concerned; what distinguishes Yoga is its over-all preoccupation with practical matters. Hence we find Gandhi too almost exclusively discussing practical matters throughout his lecture on Yoga. But the practical matters taken into consideration by the Yoga system are of a somewhat peculiar nature. The Yoga philosopher (rather the Yoga adept) aims at developing the capacity to concentrate his mind on one subject of the exclusion of everything else-and ultimately to concentrate it on nothing'. A rough equivalent forconcentration of mind' is cessation of mental modifications ( _Skt. Citta vrtti- nirodha_ )' and whatever theoretical problems interest a Yoga philosopher mostly arise in the course of his inquiry into the precise nature of _citta, citta-vrtti_ and _citta-vrtti-nirodha_. For the rest he is busy discussing the practical measures to be devised in order to develop the capacity forconcentration of mind' (or discussing the miraculous capacities that a practicing yogi allegedly comes to acquire). Gandhi's exposition of Yoga therefore begins with a brief account of citta, citta-vrtti and citta-vrtti-nirodha ; then is considers the nature of the eight yogangas (or means of yoga'- i.e., means for developing the capacity for concentration of mind), and lastly the miraculous capacities that one allegedly comes to acquire as a result of concentrating one's mind on this object or that. Now the first two _yogangas_ happen to be _yam_ and _niYams_ (in Gandhi's translationforbearances' and observances') and the various sub-species of them happen to be various virtues of character. Thus the five _yams_ areabstaining from killing ( ahimsa )', abstaining from falsehood ( _satya_ )',abstaining from theft ( asteya )', austerity (tapas)',study ( svadhyaya )' and resignation to God ( _Isvarapranidhana_ )'. Hence the consideration of these two _yogangas_ provided Gandhi a good opportunity to express his views on a number of ethical questions. Of course, in his exposition Gandhi did not want to deviate from what was actually said or implied in the _Yoga_ writings; but when he found that a particular position adopted by the _Yoga_ philosopher was not worth dilating upon he simply mentioned it and passed on. This attitude becomes particularly striking in the later parts of his exposition- that is, in the course of his exposition of the remaining six _yogangas_ and of the miraculous capacities allegedly acquired by a practicing _yogin_. In these parts we are able to know a good deal as to what the Yoga philosopher has to say on the questions under consideration but pretty little as to what Gandhi himself feels about the matter. But one thing is certain. In his own way Gandhi was thoroughly convinced that as a result of controlledconcentration of mind' (and the allied yoga exercises) one can come
to acquire supra-normal capacities of body and mind; this becomes clear not only from the occasional comments made by him in the course of his present lecture on Yoga philosophy but also from his numerous other lectures on the subject of yoga which were later on published under the title The Yoga Philosophy'. Perhaps, Gandhi would not therefore endorse the following stricture passed by Max Muller against that part of the Yoga _Sutras_ where the miraculous powers allegedly acquired by a practicing _yogi_ are enumerated: ``... we get more and more into superstitions, by no means without parallels in other countries, but for all that, superstitions which have little claim on the attention of the philosopher, however interesting they may appear to pathologist", (The six systems of Indian philosophy, p. 351). But then Max Muller had himself gone on to add; ``These matters, though trivial, could not be passed over, whether we accept them as hallucinations to which, as we know, our thinking organ (organs?) are liable, or whether we try essential part on _yoga_ philosophy and it is certainly noteworthy even from a philosophical point of view, that we find such vague and incredible statements side by side with the specimens of the most exact reasoning and careful observation'' (Ibid., p. 352) Moreover, the acquisition of miraculous capacities was not considered even by Gandhi to be the true aim of yoga practice; for in his eyes this aim wasself-culture' as he understood it.
3. NAYA (AND VAISESIKA )
For reasons partly technical and partly ideological the Naya - Vaisesika system yet remains `under-studied' by the students of Indian Philosophy-Indian as well as Western. On account of their logical rigor- as also on account of their highly evolved technical terminology -even the elementary Naya - Vaisesika texts are tough enough to scare the novice. Another reason for the comparative neglect of the system lies in the content of its teaching. The Naya - Vaisesika philosophy is a type of empirical realism and as such it is opposed to the transcendental idealism of Advaita Vedanta- the system patronized by a majority of scholars working the field of Indian philosophy. Max Muller's attitude was typical. "While in the systems hitherto examined," he says, "particularly in the Vedanta , Sankhya and Yoga , there runs a strong religious and even poetical vein, we now come to two systems, Naya and Vaisesika , which are very dry and unimaginative, ... businesslike exposition of what can be known, either of the world which surrounds us or of the world within..." (The Six Systems, p. 362). Gandhi, who was himself a man of deeply religious temperament, and who must have been alive to the fact that the Naya - Vaisesika system pays scant heed to the problems of ethics and religion, could not ditto Max Muller's sweeping condemnation of the system, not only because the condemnation was so sweeping but also because Gandhi's own general philosophical standpoint was realistic rather than idealistic. But as things stood, Gandhi did not think it worthwhile to say much (maybe he had not think it worthwhile to say much (maybe he had not much to say) about the philosophical teachings of the Naya - Vaisesika system, and what we have from his pen is a barest outline of the sixteen topics (technically called Padarthas ) whose consideration exhausts what may be called the Naya philosophy and of the seven categories (again, technically called Padarthas ) whose consideration exhausts what may be called a
