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Crime & Identity Construction in Young Offenders: A Social Approach, Study notes of Construction

The causes of crime from a social constructionist perspective, focusing on the identity construction of young offenders in South Africa. The study discusses various approaches to crime, including sociological and psychological perspectives, and examines how unemployment, youth marginalization, and social control impact crime. The document also includes narratives of young offenders, providing insights into their constructions of self, others, situations, and crime.

What you will learn

  • How do young offenders construct their identities before and after committing crime?
  • How does unemployment and youth marginalization contribute to crime in South Africa?
  • What are the different sociological and psychological approaches to understanding crime?
  • What is the role of social control in crime prevention?
  • What are the offenders' constructions of self, others, situations, and crime?

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THE SOCIAL CONSTRUCTION OF
CRIME AND IDENTITY AMONG YOUNG OFFENDERS
by
NTOMBIZODWA MOATLHODI
Dissertation submitted in partial fulfillment
of the requirements for the degree
MASTER OF ARTS
in
CLINICAL PSYCHOLOGY
in the
FACULTY OF ARTS
at the
RAND AFRIKAANS UNIVERSITY
Supervisor: Dr . C. J. Oosthuizen
July 1999
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Download Crime & Identity Construction in Young Offenders: A Social Approach and more Study notes Construction in PDF only on Docsity!

THE SOCIAL CONSTRUCTION OF

CRIME AND IDENTITY AMONG YOUNG OFFENDERS

by

NTOMBIZODWA MOATLHODI

Dissertation submitted in partial fulfillment

of the requirements for the degree

MASTER OF ARTS

in

CLINICAL PSYCHOLOGY

in the

FACULTY OF ARTS

at the

RAND AFRIKAANS UNIVERSITY

Supervisor: Dr. C. J. Oosthuizen July 1999

Acknowledgements

I wish to express my appreciation to — My husband, Modise for his patience and support. My son, Tebogo for his encouragement and for refusing to give up on me. My daughter, Bokang for her unwavering support and understanding. My sister, Mpho for being a shoulder to lean on. Dr Corinne Oosthuizen, my supervisor, whose patience, guidance and genuine interest is greatly appreciated.

Robin Hamilton, my colleague, whose assistance in editing the script is valued.

The Rand Afrikaans University for providing financial assistance and making my study possible.

The Johannesburg Prison whose assistance is greatly appreciated.

Chapter 4 — Language as a medium of the social construction 46

of meaning

4.1 Introduction 46

4.2 Language — a myriad of conversations from 46

multiple sources

4.3 Language and Meaning 47

4.4 Stories and Narratives as a 49

meaning-generating systems

4.4.1 Talk as a way of organizing description 51

4.4.2 Talk as an organizing narrative 53

4.4.3 Dialogue in psychotherapy 55

4.5 The role of the therapist 58

Chapter 5- Different constructions of the self 64

and identity

5.1 Introduction 64

5.2 Different approaches to the 65

conceptualization of the self

5.2.1 The positivistic — empiricist view of the self 65

5.2.2 The multifaceted self 67

5.2.3 The narrative self 70

5.2.4 The self conception as a social 73

construction

5.2.5 Stability and change of the self 76

 - Chapter 1- Overview on the problem of crime Page - 1.1 Introduction - 1.2 The conceptualization of crime - 1.3 Considerations in reflecting the causes of crime - 1.4 Aim of study - 1.5 Themes of study - Chapter 2- Different approaches to crime - 2.1 Introduction - 2.2 Sociological approaches to crime - 2.2.1 The subculture approach 
  • 2.2.2 The Anomie theory
  • 2.2.3 The Conflict theory
  • 2.2.4 Neutralization
  • 2.2.5 The Containment theory
  • 2.2.6 The Labeling theory
  • 2.3 Psychological approaches to crime
  • 2.3.1 The Psychodynamic perspective
  • 2.3.2 The Cognitive perspective - 2.3.3 The Behavioural perspective - 2.3.4 The Humanistic-Existential perspective - 2.3.5 The Systemic perspective - 2.4 The context of crime in South Africa - 2.4.1 The Youth - 2.4.2 The Unemployed - 2.4.3 The Squatters - 2.4.4 The Police - 2.4.5 " Com-Tsotsi's" - 2.4.6 Gangs - 2.5 Conclusion - Chapter 3 — Social constructionism - 3.1 Introduction - 3.2 Modernity
    • 3.3 Postmodernity
      • 3.3.1 Systemic thinking in psychology
    • 3.3.2 First order cybernetics
    • 3.4 Second order cybernetics
    • 3.4.1 Constructivism
  • 3.4.2 What is social constructionism
  • 3.5 Conclusion - Chapter 6 — Methodology in social constructionism - 6.1 Introduction - 6.2 The positivist era - 6.3 The post-positivist era - 6.4 Qualitative and quantitative research - 6.5 Designing qualitative interviews - 6.6 Choosing a topic - 6.7 Selecting interviewees - 6.8 Data collection - 6.9 Analysis and presentation - 6.10 Validity and reliability
    • 6.10.1 Reliability
    • 6.10.2 Validity
    • 6.11 Conclusion
    • Chapter 7- Narratives of young offenders
    • 7.1 Setting the scene: the method
    • 7.2 Introducing the respondents
  • 7.3 Setting the context of the interview
  • 7.3.1 Myself as the researcher
  • 7.3.2 The prison
  • 7.3.3 The university - 7.4 Process of inquiry - 7.5 Constructions of constructions - 7.5.1 Constructions of self - 7.5.1.1 Age - 7.5.1.2 Specialization - 7.5.1.3 Offenders' constructions of their identity - 7.5.2 Constructions of others and situations - 7.5.2.1 Materialism
    • 7.5.2.2 Unhappy family circumstances
    • 7.5.2.3 Crime committed in white suburbs
    • 7.5.2.4 Involvement of mothers
    • 7.5.2.5 Community buying stolen goods
    • 7.5.3 Constructions of the prison
    • 7.5.3.1 Gangsterism
    • 7.5.3.2 Visits
  • 7.5.4 Constructions of crime
  • 7.5.4.1 School
  • 7.5.4.2 Recidivism
  • 7.5.4.3 Peer pressure
  • 7.6 An overview of the offenders' narratives
  • Chapter 8 — Summary and Conclusion
  • 8.1 Introduction
  • 8.2 Approaches to crime
  • 8.3 The self as socially constructed
  • 8.4 Impact on reseacher
  • 8.5 Conclusion
  • References

2

Little (1990) points out that, in most cases, incarceration has detrimental effects on the young offender. It could also be a traumatic experience for them in that the deprivation of certain privileges like heterosexual relationships, the autonomy of and the relative freedom from rules. There is also the deprivation of security by being forced into association with at times, viscous and unpredictable fellow inmates, which could be an indication that the greatest pressures in prison emanate from prison warders and other inmates.

It is the aim of this thesis to look into how the young offender conceptualizes himself and the crime he commits. Attention will also be focused on how his identity is constructed as he goes through the process of planning and executing crime, is prosecuted, convicted and imprisoned. Little (1990) argues that it is the young offender's identity crisis that contributes to crime and delinquency. He explains this by pointing out that in an attempt to find himself and to change the system he finds himself in, the young person may get involved in crime.

The aspect of whether or not imprisonment is the appropriate solution to this problem has been debated for decades. This is due to the fact that in a number of cases, people do not integrate well back into the society after a period in prison. Little (1990) pointed out that incarceration strips the inmate of his identity and the prison exerts almost total control over the individual. At that point, the prisoner is powerless and the prison is at its highest power. Hence for some young offenders, the shock of shifting from liberty to prison security is most devastating.

In questioning the conditions that the young offenders are exposed to in prison, Korn (1968) proposed that young offenders should be given experiences that are appropriate for life outside and not in the artificial prison environment. The more the life of the institution resembles that of an actual social community, the more certain is the social rehabilitation of the young person.

1. 2 The Conceptualization of Crime

Crime is relative and can mean different and even opposed things according to one's point of view, which implies that it is difficult, if not impossible, to come up with a common definition of what crime is. As Fox (1976) puts it, crime is a common word with uncommon connotations. It is also an umbrella term covering a wide range of different circumstances and

3

situations. Clifford (1974, p. 1) (^) defines crime as "the kind of conduct which cannot be allowed to go on without the disruption of order, a decline of public security and a steady descent into social chaos". Therefore in order to protect lives and property and safeguard the social order such offences should be controlled.

Crow, Van der Walt, Retief and Naude (1976) argue that crime can be characterized as. the breach of a norm or rule of behaviour which has been established by law, with the obligation on every member of society to respect it. Clifford (1974) emphasizes that it is the law, which labels certain types of behaviour as criminal, implying that if there were no laws there would not be crime. On the other hand, one could argue that it is crime that creates law in that crimes precede the law because it is when crimes are committed that laws become necessary. As laws are made, unmade, changed or amended, the meaning of crime changes in the process. An action that was once regarded as legal could become illegal.

A criminal is punished once proven guilty of a crime. The purpose of punishment is to protect the public against what is considered harmful and as a deterrent to other could-be offenders. The above view implies that behaviour can only be regarded as a crime if the person is apprehended and the law proves beyond reasonable doubt that the individual has committed a crime. In other words, it does not cover those criminals acts that are committed without them being brought to the attention of the courts.

This study, though taking into consideration the fact that most young people commit crime without getting arrested, will focus on those young offenders who have been convicted and sentenced to imprisonment. The question, therefore, arises as to what do we mean by a young offender. This is also one concept that has different connotations in different countries. In South Africa, for instance, a person is a young offender until the age of 18 years. However, for the purposes of this thesis, a young offender is anyone between the age of 14 and 21 who is serving a prison sentence for committing a crime.

Most people believe that imprisonment is the best solution to crime. In South Africa today, more and more people are sent to prison - as a result, the country is facing a problem of overcrowding in the prisons. Furthermore, a lot of the taxpayer's money is being used to maintain those that are in prison. This therefore brings up a question of whether it is really worth it to imprison people, if some of them after their release still continue with crime with resultant recidivism. Even if it is an important matter to look into the issue of prisons and their

5 Clifford (1974) maintains that there is a growing dissatisfaction with the search for causes for criminal behaviour. He indicated that this search for causes has led to the conclusion that the studies made on this subject is doomed to failure even before they start due to the fact that they are not properly conceived. He argues that to look for causes is futile and that the quest for answers to unanswerable questions should be abandoned.

It is evident that there are so many causes of crime that have been investigated and there is no one of them that could explain criminal behaviour fully and satisfactorily. Regardless of the amount of work that has been done in this subject, we are still not winning as far as controlling or preventing crime goes. This study, in an effort to conceptualize criminal behaviour, will be based on the social constructionist approach. Some refer to this approach as the postmodern discourse. The basic premise of the social constructionist approach is that objective knowledge is impossible and it emphasizes multiple realities. This, therefore, avoids an ideological and exclusive connotation while at the same time opening space for the possibility of recognizing and including other paradigms. That is, a both rather than an either/or stance is preferred (Owen, 1992).

The social constructionist approach maintains that we cannot objectively conclude that certain conditions will lead to the development of criminal behaviour or any form of behaviour. We also cannot confine behaviour to a particular ideological approach, but we need to recognize that there are multiple realities that cannot be contained by only one ideology. The different approaches to human behaviour and criminal behaviour, in particular, will be discussed later in this thesis.

1. 4 Aim of the Study

The young offender's criminal behaviour exerts enormous damage to the social and economical aspects of the country. Exploring the identity construction of young offenders, the decisions and choices they make in breaking into strangers' houses, stealing and hijacking other people's cars, is the focus of this study. Attention will also be focused on exploring how the criminal "career" affects and is affected by their identity construction.

It is also the purpose of this study to explore what could be attracting the young offender to embark on a criminal expedition, in spite of the consequences of such activities, which appear to be uninviting and uncomfortable. The study comes about as a result of the misery and

6

trauma experienced by victims of the young offender's criminal activities (Clifford, 1974).

People spend a lot of money improving the security systems in their properties with the

purpose of barring the offenders from entering their premises, or taking the cars away from

them. This, however, does not seem to work most of the time as it has in some cases

contributed to the offenders also improving their skills on how to commit crime. There is

increased surveillance in department stores, insurance premiums are high and there is an

increase in the cost of goods and services.

It seems that as crime escalates, more young people are sent to prison. Society also feels

that prison is the best option for the young offender. Others would like the death sentence to

be imposed to deal with the crime problem. At the moment, prisons are overcrowded with

young people, who will be released in a few years' time. The question is whether, at the time

of their release will they be able to be reintegrated back to society. What kind of people are

we expecting them to be when they become adults? What role will they play in the

functioning of the community?

Probably the community needs to be informed about what happens in prison, for there is a

general assumption that prison is a rehabilitative institution. It is seen as a place where we get

rid of troublemakers, who on their release have become good citizens with a brighter future.

People perceive a prison as a place that rehabilitates offenders and helps reintegrate them

back into society. Whether the prison pursues and achieves this purpose needs to be seen.

However, the high rate of recidivism leaves much to be desired. Cronje'et al. (1976) in their

study found that a large number of young offenders became recidivists or recidivism can be

traced back to juvenile offences.

1. 5 Themes of this Study

This study begins with a general overview of the fact that crime is escalating in the

country and is perceived as the number one menace that adversely affects the functioning of

the society. It also introduces what is covered in the following chapters.

Chapter 2 focuses on the different approaches to crime causation with the view of bringing

in the studies that researchers have done in the course of dealing with crime. This thesis

adopts the social constructionist approach in looking at the social construction of identity and

crime among young offenders. The basic tenet of this approach is that behaviour is based on

8 CHAPTER 2

DIFFERENT APPROACHES TO CRIME

2. 1 Introduction

Most people are interested in knowing why offenders really commit crime. Clifford

(1974) has mentioned that even the offenders themselves would like to know. Probably this

could be attributed to the assumption that once we know why people commit crime, this could

assist us in preventing it. Most of the work done on this subject is based on ideas of causation.

The interest in the causation of crime began centuries ago. Different people have come up

with different reasons as to why crime is committed. According to Reckless (1961), before the

18th century, crime explanations were demonological, that is based on the possession of

spirits, or naturalistic, which referred to having brain injury or dysfunction. During the 18 th

century the classical school of thought was established and based its arguments on

rationalism, whereby man had the power to choose right from wrong unless he was insane at

the time of the commission of the deed. The classical school incorporated the pleasure-pain,

theory whereby man's behaviour is believed to be guided by what brought him pleasure, and

he was supposed to turn away from things which brought him pain.

As the various sciences began to grow, the explanations of crime and behaviour shifted

from rationalism to causes which exist in the hereditary, constitutional and psychological

make-up of individuals, as well as the causes which exist in the physical and social

environment of man. According to Reckless (1961), the most sensational theory of the late

19th century, which shook rationalistic theory, was the one propounded by Lombroso. He

proposed that a serious criminal was a born criminal. He argued that the physical and mental

characteristics contributed to an individual becoming a criminal. Lombroso's last work,

however, considered the pressures of a bad environment along with hereditary in criminality.

Another scholar by the name of Ferri (cited in Reckless, 1961), who was a positivist,

argued that causes for crime should be sought in the hereditary, physical and mental make-up

of man as well as his environment. This approach has had an influence on sociologists in

calling attention to the bad conditions and pressures in the social environment. Some theorists

like Clifford (1974) have pointed out that there are people who are weak and become easy

prey to temptation or tend to be easily influenced by others. He also argues that some could be

9

unable to meet the complicated challenges of life in a modern society. Some may also perceive the gains of crime to be worth the risks of detention and punishment.

There have been many arguments that the situation that one finds oneself in contributes greatly to one's involvement in crime. Samenhow (1984) argues that it is not factors like the neighbourhood, inadequate parenting, television, schools, drugs and unemployment that cause crime, but the offenders themselves. He emphasizes that crime resides in the minds of people and is not caused by social conditions. He argues that people commit crime out of choice and have to be held responsible for the offences resulting from the choices they make.

These arguments beg the question as to whether the juvenile offender could also be held responsible for the crimes he commits, especially bearing in mind that he is regarded by the law as a minor and, therefore, not in a position to make suitable judgements and choices. It would be appropriate at this stage to look at the different theories that address the issue of causation of crime. We are going to look at this aspect from the sociological and psychological viewpoints and later attention will be focused on the situation of crime in South Africa.

2. 2 Sociological Approaches to Crime

There are many sociological approaches but not all of them are going to be discussed here, as there would not be enough space and time. These approaches pay attention to the processes in society, which could play a role in the determination of criminal behaviour.

    1. 1 The Subculture Approach

Theories of subculture hold that a person develops with his peers in a group or gang where the value system is constant, though it deviates from that of the larger society. Sutherland (cited in Fox, 1976) was a proponent of the differential association theory, which argues that individuals having contacts with others would be exposed to differing social values and patterns of behaviour. The conclusion is that crime results from the association of individuals or groups with criminal patterns. The more frequent and consistent these associations, the more likely that the individual will become a criminal. This, therefore, implies that the more people are kept in prison with other criminals, the greater the internalization of criminal values and the perpetuation of criminal patterns. He also argues

Cloete and Stevens (1990) assert that in Western societies, people measure their success through material possessions. It is also instilled in community members that success is imperative. There are, however, those people who are not capable of achieving success through socially acceptable means, and, therefore, resort to crime. Some people do not have access to education, which is a prerequisite for success. This kind of situation could lead to anomie.

In the process of explaining criminal behaviour, Fox (1976) found that the anomie theory was limited in that it fails to explain why is it that the majority of individuals exposed to such circumstances do not exhibit criminal behaviour that leads to their arrest.

    1. 3 Conflict theory

This theory argues that in societies conflict develops between people and figures of authority. Clifford (1974) highlights that every society consists of different standards of living and ideas about what conduct or dress or interests are acceptable or unacceptable, and about what is fashionable or not. It could also be found that more informally some groups have a frame of reference for behaviour not always in accordance with the patterns which are set for the larger society. Such a weak affiliation could contribute to the commission of crime.

George Simmel (cited in Fox, 1976), one of the proponents of the conflict theory, argues that crime should be regarded as behaviour that stems from social injustice resulting from the deprivation of economic and political rights. Therefore, criminal behaviour will develop as a way of violating the conventionally sanctioned social expectations or rules of conduct.

According to Fox (1976), conflict theory emerges from the social interaction theory of personality formation and the social process idea in collective behaviour. Groups come into conflict when one overlaps the other in areas of interest and purpose. Studies conducted by Shaw & Mckay and Glueck & Glueck (cited in Fox, 1976) show that a large number of juvenile offenders committed their offences with one or more associate. They point out that people tend to stay in groups, particularly when they are alienated from the mainstream of society and have to find security, identity and acceptance in a gang. The gang demands loyalty and adherence to an approved code of values that is in conflict with the established values of adults and the police powers of the state.

12

    1. 4 Neutralization

This theory was developed by Sykes and Matza (1957) and argues that delinquents are able to justify their criminal behaviour. This approach seems to be in conflict with the subculture theory in that it argues that the delinquent's value system is not contrary to that of the dominant culture, but that the young offender's conduct is essentially a defence in the form of justifications for crime that is seen as valid by the delinquent.

Reckless and Shoham (cited in Fox, 1976) regard neutralization as norm erosion, whereby inner containment is diminished and the involvement in criminal behaviour is facilitated. Hirshi (cited in Fox, 1976) supports this theory and points out that the delinquent is unusual in that he acts on behalf of his group despite that it is not worth the sacrifice. The drift approach is closely related to neutralization theory in that it refers to when a young person finds it difficult to make a definite commitment to either delinquency or legal conformity. He may drift between these two opposing commitments and make use of extenuating circumstances to justify delinquency. The young offender may justify his criminal behaviour by emphasizing extenuating circumstances.

    1. 5 Containment theory

This theory was proposed by Reckless (1961), who assumes that there is an inner and outer control system in man. The basis of this theory is that there are pushes and pulls toward criminal or conforming behaviour both internally and externally. If the inner pushes and the outer pulls are toward delinquent behaviour, then delinquent behaviour will result. Inner containment, according to Reckless, involves factors such as a good self-concept, self-control, high resistance to diversions and so on. Inner and outer containment apparently occupies a central position between the pressures of the external environment and a person's inner drives. According to Fox (1976), containment theory is a balance between inner pushes and outer constraints and can account for all behaviour, including criminal behaviour.

    1. 6 Labeling theory

This theory is based on the assumption that nothing is criminal, but certain things have been so defined and labeled by society. People are regarded as criminal mainly because of the visibility of the offending behaviour and the labeling process by the system of criminal