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This literature review explores the concept of sports confidence, its definition, factors involved, methods of measurement, and development. The research focuses on the impact of sports confidence on athletic performance in track and field athletes, drawing from various studies and theoretical models. The review also discusses the importance of confidence for both individuals and teams, and the role of goal setting and mental imagery training in developing sports confidence.
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The Impact of Confidence on Athletic Performance How the Implementation of Mental Training Affect Track and Field Performances By Mikhail Williamson Submitted in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Master of Education December 2019 Graduate Program in Education Goucher College
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i List of Tables
ii Abstract The purpose of this research was to determine if the implementation of mental training will improve athletic performance of Division III track and field athletes over a track and field season. The null hypothesis states that sports confidence will not improve athletic performance. Of the two groups tested, the posttest results of the sprinters did not accept the null hypothesis, which means there was no significant change from the results of the pretest. The hypothesis was accepted for the throwers, as there was a significant change in the results of the shot-put pretest and post-tests. This study involved the use of a pretest/posttest design to compare data from www.TFRRS.org and the use of a confidence questionnaire.
Hypothesis Implementation of sports confidence training will not improve athletic performance. Operational Definitions The purpose of this study is to see the impact that self-efficacy and sports confidence has on athletic performances on NCAA Division III track and field team. The dependent (like) variable is athletic performance as measured by the times ran by the sprinters and distances recorded by and throwers. Confidence training can be defined as the planning and practice of various method to build or increase the belief in one’s ability to perform a task.
Introduction Developing the mental aspect of sports is what give some athletes of equal ability the dive to be better competitors than others, one must be willing to explore the mental aspect of competition to find what gives athletes that extra push to achieve great feats? The importance of confidence and its impact on athletic performance. In this literature review, the researcher will seek to first define sports confidence and self-efficacy then secondly, studies have sought to find the impact of how one’s ability to believe in themselves can influence their physical performance. The researcher will then review the factors involved in sports confidence. Lastly, this review then will review methods of measuring confidence, its impact on sports and lastly explore methods of developing sports confidence. Definition of Sports Confidence When it involves mental processes the term psychology becomes the focal point, therefore, the involvement of mental processes in sports are sports psychology. Sports psychology is defined as "the application of the knowledge and scientific methods of psychology to the study of people in sport and exercise settings" (Gallucci, 20 14 , p. 4 ). One of the most important psychological factors for performance is confidence because research has shown that confidence is the most important psychological factor that differentiates more successful elite athletes from less successful ones. Confidence is no stranger in many aspects of society, this would mean it is also present in the world of sports. The study of
demands of a sports situation (Amasiatu, 2013). Another study states that athletes develop confidence via four sources, these sources though like that of Manzo et. al ( 2001 ) are different and developed through mastery experience, vicarious experiences, verbal persuasion and lastly physiological perceptions, these four sources stem from Bandura’s self-efficacy theory (19 7 7). Self-efficacy, in comparison to self-esteem, is relatively specific to situation and domain. Sources of self-confidence and self-efficacy are also seen through, past success, the influence of the coach, learning through observation, Learn from successful prototypes and interpretation of one's own body signals as an optimal state and not as a nervous state (Beckmann & Elbe, 201 3 ). Reviewing all aspects of factors involving confidence the common theme across the board speaks that there must be the inclusion of trait and state confidence. Trait self-confidence represents the perceptions that individuals usually possess about their ability to be successful in sport; state self-confidence represents the perceptions individuals have at a particular moment about their ability to be successful in sport (Hossein et. al, 2013). All studies follow a specific trend confirms that self-confidence is a skill and can be developed according to such as an athlete's physical development which will be considered and explain in the later sections of the literature review. Methods of Measuring Confidence Methods of measuring one’s internal beliefs or personal attitude have made groundbreaking achievements throughout the timeline of sports psychological research. Some research seeks to find sport-related attitude surveys that are predictive of athletic performance.
According to Cameron (2011), the Sports Personality Questionnaire (SPQ20) is a sport psychology assessment test provides information about an athlete's personality and mental skills. The instrument is based on a model of mental toughness, covering personality factors and mental skills that have been shown to impact on athletic performance. The SPQ20 is designed to help athletes understand and measure themselves against the psychological factors that affect a player's performance and potential. The field of sports psychology could be completely flexible in finding answers if the researcher remains ethical. Impact on Sports Performance It is evident that someone’s psychological state can affect one’s performance. The articles under review all concluded some effect through their studies, an example of someone’s mental state can be in the form of fear, as Compte and Postlewaite (2004) explained, "Positive emotions can improve performance, while negative ones can diminish it”. Studies have shown that even the thought of possible failure can lead to physiological consequence that can affect the athlete’s performance (Compte & Postlewaite, 2004). As studies have shown that confidence is associated with a positive effect. Self- confidence provides a general framework for control and management of stress and sport self- efficacy particularly helps the athlete in a specific field related to management and control of sport stresses, better performance, and sport achievement (Besharat & Pourbohlool, 2011). Not only does confidence impact individuals there is also an uprising trend that confidence also impacts teams, Research has demonstrated that athletes who are more confident in their team’s abilities exert more effort, set more challenging goals, are more resilient when facing adversities, and ultimately perform better (Fransen, et al., 2017).
Design The study uses a pre-experimental study with a pretest and posttest on a single group. The Goucher College Track and Field team the sprinters, and throwers who have participated throughout the entirety of the season were selected to participate in the research. TFRRS.org was used as the measure for pretest and posttest. Different types of confidence training such as mental imagery training and positive self-talk will be implemented after the first competition. The competitive season takes place from January 2019 – May 2019, the athletic measures tabulated were the times/ distances achieved with achieved at the first competition of the season and will be compared to the marks at the end of the season. Participants Participants in this study included a total of 10 student-athletes from two different event groups of the Men's and Women Track and Field team at a private, liberal arts college. Participants were between the ages of 18 and 21 years old. The athletes will be selected from the team if they are returning athletes, this group is chosen because the results from the previous season are already readily available. The groups consisted of five sprinters, and five throwers that all had different experience levels. Of the five sprinters, three were female and two males, the thrower group consisted of two females and three males. Instrument
The instruments used in this project were the Track and Field Result Reporting System (TFRRS.org) and the Sports Personality Questionnaire (SPQ20). The SPQ20 is a personality assessment questionnaire that provides information about an athlete's personality and mental skills, it measures 20 dimensions which cover four key factors, confidence and resilience, achievement drive and competitiveness, interaction and sportsmanship, and power and aggressiveness. The instrument is based on a model of mental toughness covering personality factors and mental skills that have an impact on athletic performance. This instrument seeks to provide information on how to increase awareness and understanding of sport mental skills, analyze mental toughness, provide practical tips for performance improvement and to increase confidence and improve mental skills. According to myskillprofile.com, the publisher and distributor of the SPQ20 state that the criterion-related validity studies show statistically significant correlations between athletic performance and test scores on nearly all the scales. The test also boasts an internal consistency reliability of the scales range from 0.7 to 0.8 with a median of 0.7.” The Track and Field Result Reporting System (TFRRS.org) is the website used to compile all collegiate track and field results in a centralized location. This website is the standard source for all applicable event marks. Procedure The participants' results from the first meet of the season were tabulated. On the first practice session prior to the first meet, the participants were presented the SPQ20. The results of the SPQ20 and the meet results were tabulated with each corresponding participant. Throughout the entirety of the season, the participants took part in two forms of mental training and confidence building activities prior to two the five training days and once before
The purpose of this study was to determine if improving self-efficacy and sports confidence will increase athletic performance for collegiate track and field athletes. This study tabulated the athletic marks of athletes in the 200m dash and the shot put. The hypothesis states that the implementation of sport confidence training will not improve athletic performance. Table 1. Means and Standard Deviations of the Measures Measure Pre-Test Mean (Standard Deviation) Post-Test Mean (Standard Deviation) 200 Meters 28.35 (2.689) 26.51 (3.072) Shot Put 10.84 (.957) 11.07 (1.203) Dependent t-tests were run to determine if there was impact of confidence training on athletic performance. Mean and standard deviations of the measures are shown in Table 1. Results showed no significant difference for the 200 meters [ t (7) = 20369, p >.05] and showed a significant difference for the shot put [ t (4) = - .8620, p <.05]. These results and their implications will be discussed in the next chapter.
The purpose of this study was to determine if improving self-efficacy, and sports confidence will increase the athletic performances for collegiate track and field athletes. The null hypothesis indicates that there will be no changes after the intervention of mental training. The results states that the null hypothesis was accepted for the 200 meters and rejected for the shot put. Implications of Results The results showed that there was a significant difference between in the in the pretest of the shot-put marks and the post-test of the shot-put marks which signifies that the null hypothesis was rejected. The 200m group showed no difference between pre and post-test marks, so the null hypothesis is accepted. Each group was given the same interventions of confidence training and the same timeline duration of the collegiate track and field season. Vealey and Chase (2008) suggest research in confidence across time should be considered to understand how unstable confidence is throughout a period of time. Vealey and Chase (2008) discusses the idea that confidence might need to fluctuate in order for athletes to have consistent success. Theoretical Consequences Several researchers advocate confidence as beneficial to performance, research into the relationship between confidence and elite performance is characterized by correlational designs, making it difficult to draw firm conclusions about causal relationships. Compte and Postlewaite (2004) explained, "Positive emotions can improve performance, while negative ones can
References Amasiatu, A. (2013). Exploring the role of confidence to enhancing sports performance. Educational Research International. 1. 69 – 74. Bandura, A. (1977). Self-efficacy: Toward a unifying theory of behaviour change. Psychological Bulletin, 84, 191-215. Beckmann, J. and Elbe, A_. (2013)._ Skill training. Sport Psychological Interventions in Competitive Sports. https://search.credoreference.com/content/entry/wileyse/skill_training/ Besharat, M & Pourbohlool, S. (2011). Moderating effects of self-confidence and sport self- efficacy on the relationship between competitive anxiety and port performance. Psychology.
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