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The Evolution of Korean
Literature: From Hyangga to
Practical Learning
Korean Literature
Orthography and Historical Periods
Korean literature could be written in Chinese before the invention of Hangul. The orthographic systems used include:
Chinese (using the sounds, not the actual letters) Modified Chinese letters Hangul
The major historical periods of Korean literature are:
KoChosŏn (2333-194 BC) Wiman Chosŏn (194-108 BC) Puyo (?-346 AD) Pon Kaya (42-532 AD) Koguryo (37 BC – 668 AD) Paekche (18 BC – 660 AD) Silla (57 BC – 935 AD) Parhae Koryo (698-926 AD) Chosŏn (1392-1910 AD)
Historical Records
Two important historical records of the Three Kingdoms period are:
Samguk Sagi ( 삼국사기) : Historical Records of the Three Kingdoms, written in 1146 by Kim Pusik, using a scientific approach. Samguk Yusa ( 삼국사기) : Memorabilia of the Three Kingdoms, written in 1285 by Iryŏn, containing tales and legends.
These texts were likely modified over time.
Foundation Myths
Tangun : Hwan-ung, the son of the God of All, descended to Mount T'aebaeksan and established the Chosŏn ('Land of the Morning Calm') Kingdom in 2333 BC.
A tiger and a bear prayed to become human, and the bear-woman gave birth to Tan-gun, the wise and powerful leader.
Chumong (King Tongmyong삼국사기) :
Biographical patterns of heroes include being born from an egg, having divine paternity, and being handsome and strong.
Early Korean Poetry
Kuji Ka (Song of Kuji삼국사기)
Originally written in classic Chinese, this incantation was used to pray for the descent of King Suro. The purpose was to have the king ("the head") show himself.
Kongmudoha-ka (Milord, don't cross the river삼국사기)
Originally written in classic Chinese, this poem expresses the sorrow over the death of a loved one. The color blue is associated with sorrow in Korean literature.
Hwangjo Ka (Song of Orioles삼국사기)
Originally written in classic Chinese, this poem expresses the pangs of love and loneliness from separation. It was about a king who had two wives, and one was discriminated against and left.
Social Backgrounds
Buddhism was influential, especially during the Unified Silla period. Confucianism spread throughout the upper classes during the Three Kingdoms period. Daoism was also present.
The Hwarang (flowering knights) were Silla's elite corps of knights, with five commandments: 1. Loyalty to the king (Confucianism) 2. Filial piety towards parents (Confucianism) 3. Treat friends with sincerity (Confucianism) 4. Never retreat from a battlefield (Buddhism) 5. Be discriminated the taking of life (Buddhism)
Korean Buddhism focused more on protecting the country than the original teachings. The belief in Maitreya, the future Buddha, was important.
Buddhist Literature
Notable Buddhist monks and their contributions: - Goguryeo: Sosurim (372)
- Baekje: Chinryu (384) - Silla: Nulji (5th century), Beopheung (527), Wonhyo (617-686), Uisang (625-702)
Kip'a's mind. The author describes Kip'a as the towering pine that scorns frost and ignores snow, symbolizing someone who never changes his mind.
The King, Ministers, and Subjects
The author suggests that the king should be a father, and his ministers should be loving mothers. The subjects are like foolish children who only receive what love brings. The king, schooled in saving the masses, should feed and guide them. If each - the king, minister, and subject - lives as he should, peace and prosperity will prevail in the land.
Koryo Songs and Music
Koryo songs were mostly vulgar, with frank expressions of love that seemed an affront to public decency. Historians compiled and edited these songs, and during the reign of Sŏngjong, six of the existing songs were revised (1488 and 1490). The main themes of these songs were love and curse.
Chong Kwajong's Song
Chong Kwajong's song expresses his yearning for his beloved, whom he believes the king has forgotten. He claims to have committed no errors or crimes, and he pleads with the king to listen to him and show him favor.
Sogyo (Popular Songs삼국사기)
Sogyo were sung to musical accompaniment and found their place wherever men and women gathered and entertained each other with songs. The refrain serves as a meaningless onomatopoeia of the sounds of musical instruments or nonsense jingles to carry the tune and spirit of the songs.
Tongdong (Ode to the Seasons삼국사기)
Tongdong is a song that evokes the lover in every season. It was probably edited because it had to be performed in front of the king.
Ch'ongsan pyolgok (Song of Green Mountain삼국사기)
Ch'ongsan pyolgok is a song that expresses the desire to live in the green mountain, surrounded by nature. It also reflects the singer's sorrow and loneliness.
Chongsok ka (Song of the Gong and Chimes삼국사기)
Chongsok ka is a song that celebrates the age of great peace and plenty, while also expressing the fear of being forsaken by the beloved.
Samo Kok (Maternal Love삼국사기)
Samo Kok is a song that compares a father's love to a mother's love, suggesting that the mother's love is superior.
Kyonggich'e ka (Ortographic Song삼국사기)
Kyonggich'e ka is a song with a specific structure, but its origin is unclear.
Hallim pyolgok (by Confucian Scholars삼국사기)
Hallim pyolgok is a song that showcases the literary skills of Confucian scholars, including their prose, poetry, parallel prose, and classical exegesis.
Folk and Shamanist Songs
Folk and shamanist songs were not allowed in the Chosŏn period due to Confucianism. However, two folk songs and twelve songs associated with shamanist rituals were recorded in Notations for Korean Music in Contemporary Use.
Koryo Writings in Chinese
Koryo literature, written in Chinese, represented the life of common people and traditional customs, even though it was primarily produced by the upper classes who had access to Chinese education.
Poems by Yi Illo and Yu Kyubo
Yi Illo's poem "題天尋院壁" is a descriptive and expressive work, while Yu Kyubo's poem "A Chronic Sickness" is a confession of his obsession with writing poetry, which he compares to a disease.
Chang Am by Yi Chehyon
Chang Am is a satirical song that mocks a politician who was caught in a net, representing his resignation and return to the court, only to be kicked out in the end.
Earl of Wind
The Earl of Wind is a poem that expresses the hope for a good harvest and the well-being of the people.
Yi Saek (1328-1396삼국사기)
Yi Saek was a civil officer who studied Neo-Confucianism. He believed that the rulers must understand the lives of the people. He showed a strong interest in Korean indigenous customs and wrote in Chinese about Korean customs and common people.
The Founding of the Joseon Dynasty
With the establishment of the Joseon dynasty in 1392, Seoul was planned and built according to Confucian principles, becoming the new capital of Korea. The early Joseon kings rejected Buddhist ideas and promoted Neo- Confucianism: T'aejo (1392-1398) Jŏngjong (1398-1400) T'aejong (1400-1418) Sejong (1418-1450)
King Sejong the Great
Invented the Korean alphabet, Hangul, in 1443 and promulgated it in
The reason for creating Hangul was that the language of the Korean people could not be properly expressed using Chinese characters, leaving the common people unable to write and read. Sejong created 28 new characters based on the shapes of the vocal apparatus, as well as 11 vowels representing Heaven, Earth, and Man.
Yongbieocheonga (Songs of Flying Dragons삼국사기)
A cycle of 125 cantos and 248 poems compiled during Sejong's reign in 1445-1447. It celebrates the legitimacy and virtues of the Joseon dynasty's ancestors, from T'aejong back to Mokcho 6 generations earlier. The "dragons" represent the 6 ancestors of the Joseon dynasty. The poems establish the Joseon dynasty as divinely supported and acting according to the "Mandate of Heaven".
Sijo Poetry
The sijo is a short lyric poem/song with 3 lines. It originated from Goryeo songs and was transmitted orally before being written down in the 18th century. The third line is the most important, often introducing a countertheme, paradox, resolution, or judgment. Notable sijo poets include the Neo-Confucian scholars Yi Hwang and Yi I, who wrote on themes of nature, harmony, and the pursuit of learning.
Ch'ŏnggu yŏngŏn (Songs of Green Hills삼국사기)
The first collection of sijo poetry, compiled by Kim Ch'ŏnt'aek in 1728. It contains around 580 sijo poems from the times of Goguryeo, Baekje, Silla, and Goryeo. Most sijo were written by anonymous common people, though some were composed by renowned Neo-Confucian scholars.
Hwang Chini and Korean Poetry
Hwang Chini: A Renowned Female Poet
Hwang Chini (fl. 1506–44) was a highly acclaimed female poet and performer in the Chosŏn period of Korea. She was educated in the Confucian canon, calligraphy, and music, and could write in both Chinese and Korean. Hwang Chini was known by the pen name Myŏngwŏl (Bright Moon) and was a renowned kisaeng (female entertainer trained in music, dancing, poetry, and polite conversation).
Hwang Chini's Poetic Works
"Do not boast of your speed, O blue-green stream running by the hills"
This poem uses natural imagery to convey a deeper meaning. The "blue-green stream" represents a man who came to meet Hwang Chini, thinking he could resist her charms. The "moonlight" is a metaphor for Hwang Chini herself, suggesting that he should stay and enjoy the moment with her, as he may never have the chance again.
"I will cut in two a long November night"
This poem expresses Hwang Chini's desire to have more time with her lover. The "long November night" refers to the winter solstice, the longest night of the year. Hwang Chini says she would cut the night in half and place one part under the coverlet, so that she could "stretch the night" and have more time with her lover.
Kasa: A Unique Korean Poetic Form
Characteristics of Kasa
Kasa originated as song lyrics written to a prevailing kasa tune, characterized by a lack of stanzaic division and variable length. Kasa often focused on description, exposition, and at times, lyricism, using balanced parallel phrases, verbal and syntactical. Kasa is often likened to the Chinese fu (rhyme-prose or rhapsody) and emerged as a new genre in the middle of the fifteenth century during the early Chosŏn period.
Pak Illo's "Songs of Five Relations"
Pak Illo, a soldier and poet who lived during the Imjin War, wrote a collection of 25 sijo titled "Songs of Five Relations." The songs cover the five Confucian relationships, with 5 songs for each relationship and 3 additional songs for a general summary. Pak Illo's songs are highly didactic and ethical, reflecting the importance of Confucian ideals in Chosŏn society, though they are sometimes considered less valuable from a literary perspective.
Yun Sŏndo and "Angler's Songs"
Yun Sŏndo (1587–1671) was a government official during the Chosŏn dynasty who was banished for his straightforward criticism of those in power. His main work, "Angler's Songs" (Ŏbu sasisa), was built upon the tradition of "songs of fishermen" in East Asian literature. The "Angler's Songs" reflect Yun Sŏndo's contemplation of the nature of life during his time in rustic exile.
Yun Sŏndo's Fisherman's Songs
The Fisherman as a Symbol
In both Chinese and Korean classical poetry, the fisherman symbolized a wise man who lives simply and naturally, they are satisfied with their lives.
"Ŏbu sasisa"
"Ŏbu sasisa" is a cycle of sijo that consists of ten poems for each season, a total of forty pieces.
Characteristics of "Ŏbu sasisa"
Not only abundant in quantity, but also each piece is developed according to the flow of time, creating a completed form in the whole work. Yun accepted the vigor of enjoying life in nature and forms a consensus with nature more sensitively than other poets. The freshness of his language, his imaginative word usage and line structure, and the excellence of his craft set higher standards to which future writers could aspire. Lyrical rhythms: one of his innovations involved adding a refrain after lines one and three to suggest the handling of a boat. Within each of the four sections, the first refrain varies from verse to verse. However, the second is always 'Chigukch'ong, chigukch'ong, oshwa (or osawa),' an onomatopoetic phrase evidently meant to represent the sounds of the anchor chain and the rowing. The verbs in the first envois of each seasonal set of songs are identical from season to season and arranged in a narrative sequence: (1) cast
off; (2) hoist anchor; (3) raise sail; (4) row away; (5) row away; (6) lower the sail; (7) stop the boat; (8) moor the boat; (9) drop anchor; and (10) bring the boat ashore.
Poetic Structure
First line: 3 4 3 4 Envoi: 4 4 Second line: 3 4 3 4 Envoi: 3 3 3 Third line: 3 4 3 4
Sijo was sung, and the refrains were meant to give it more musical rhythm.
The Fisherman's Detachment from Society
The poem "Autumn 8" stresses the distance between the speaker and the political world. The fisherman represents someone who's free from the real society, especially politics, authority or money. Yun Sŏndo is a representative figure of someone who retired from the political scene and went back to nature.
The "dust" is a metaphor of the outside world, the political world is dusty. This is a reference to the Chinese recluse Hsu Yu, who washed his ears with river water when the emperor suggested giving him the throne, as a way of washing his ears from the dirty words he heard. Since the fisherman heard nothing, he did not need to wash his ears, as he was satisfied with his situation. He devoted his life to the truth of feeling, the spontaneous expression of his freedom, and his life was not bothered by power and reality, he could just enjoy his life.
Poetic Expressions
The Fisherman's Song stirs my fancy; I have forgotten all about fishing. The heart shouts its peak of joy, I have lost my way in the dark. (Summer 1)
Whelmed by my exalted mood, I had not known my day was ending. In an empty boat, with straw cape and hat, I sit and my heart beats fast. (Winter
Yun Sŏndo's Legacy
Yun Sŏndo is considered one of the greatest poets of the Chosŏn period, known for his sense of craft, his vocation, and his delight in the exercise of linguistic possibilities to convert experience into art. He sounds at ease with himself, and no other sijo poet wrote like him or proves more exhilarating and rewarding. Yun Sŏndo is a poet for all seasons.
Sasŏl Sijo and Kasa Poetry
Sasŏl Sijo
Sasŏl sijo is a longer form or an irregular form of sijo in which more than 2 metric segments in each line, except for the first in line 3, are added. It was
conversations, and a bit of self-satire, creating a convincing picture of a poor but noble poet-farmer's life.
Motifs of Kasa by Exiles
Victims of factional struggles were sent into exile, mostly to the Jeolla province and the remote island of the south (like Jeju). They wrote kasa to express their feelings, including: 1. The sorrow of exile and recollection of the past. 2. The causes of exile. 3. Itineraries with a brief description of places, often with allusions to Chinese places where men of letters had been banished. 4. A description of the place of exile (houses, people, landscape, etc.). 5. The host family's dwelling, diet, and hardships. 6. Repentance, longing for home, and a prayer for a quick recall, also because they were exiled in places difficult to reach.
Kasa Inspired by Chŏng Ch'ŏl
The kasa compositions "Pyŏl samiin kok" (Separate Hymn of Constancy) and "Sok samiin kok" (Continued Hymn of Constancy) were written by Kim Ch'unt'aek and Yi Chinyu, respectively, during their exile in Jeju island. They are very similar in structure and diction to Chŏng Ch'ŏl's original work.
Travel Kasa
Travel kasa include poems written about famous mountains, lakes, and the like, as well as poems about trips to China and Japan by members of diplomatic missions. Examples include "Iltong changyu ka" (Song of a Grand Trip to Japan, 1764) and "Yŏnhaeng ka" (Song of a Trip to Peking, 1866) by Kim Ingyŏm. These works provide insights into the Japanese and Chinese cultures of the time.
Missions to China
During the Qin dynasty's invasion of the Chosŏn peninsula, the Qin initially considered the Chosŏn people as barbarians. However, they later tried to establish diplomatic relations with the Chosŏn dynasty. The Qin dynasty was considered inferior to the previous Ming dynasty, as the civilization in Manchuria was far behind compared to the Ming.
Kyubang Kasa
Also called "women's kasa", the literati's wives and daughters learned Hangul and memorized the composed kasa. The kasa dealt with the joys and sorrows in the lives of women, and are meaningful as they demonstrate that women arose as a literature- creating group. Kyubang kasa were created not only by upper-status yangban women but by women of all classes, showing that the gap in sexual discrimination had narrowed in medieval culture.
Topics of Kyubang Kasa
Congratulatory kasa: Composed for events like passing examinations, wedding anniversaries, and sixtieth birthdays. Amusement kasa: Written when women gathered to pick azalea flowers, go boating, or play games. Songs lamenting the fate of being born as women: Compare the relations between man and woman to those between cat and mouse or falcon and pheasant. Didactic pieces: Giving instruction, likely to children.
Commoner's Kasa
Kasa on Social Criticism
"Kammin ka" ("Song of the Kapsan People"): Criticizes heavy taxes that forced farmers to leave their land.
Satirical Kasa
"Kwabu ka" ("Song of a Widow"): Expresses sadness over her husband's early death. "Noch'ŏnyŏ ka" ("Song of a Spinster"): Expresses anxiety over not getting married at the right moment. "Kyusu sangsa kok" ("Song of a Lovestruck Man"), "Tanjang ka" ("Song of Broken Bowels"): Express the hopes and struggles of men in love. "Hwajŏn ka" ("Song of the Flower-adorned Cake"): Laments the fate of a woman who became a widow five times. "Noin ka" ("Song of an Old Man"): Laments old age.
Characteristics of Commoner's Kasa
Main topics: love, lament, and social criticism. The speaker confronts actuality with critical awareness and exposes social contradictions and the hypocrisy of established morality. The commoner's kasa resist the dominant Confucian ideology and challenge the value system of the ruling class with humor and satire. Today, they are read more as social documents than literary monuments, expressing the spontaneous thoughts and feelings of the common people.
Poetry in Chinese
During the Chosŏn dynasty, the scholar-official class continued to occupy the dominant ruling position, enjoying cultural superiority based on their Confucian knowledge and refinement. The civil service examinations emphasized literary talents, leading to the development of literature and the production of excellent poets who wrote in literary Chinese.
The Author of New Stories from Gold Turtle
Mountain
Main ideas:
a. Criticism of a society that frustrated the ideals of scholar-officials: a strong spirit of resistance against the tyranny of reality. b. Compassion for those suffering under the yoke of authoritarian rule and a corrupted ruling class.
"Yŏng sanga ko" ("Singing about the Suffering of the
Mountain Home"삼국사기)
Talks about the people who escaped from their villages and started to live in the mountains due to heavy taxes imposed by officials, and their suffering and hopes for a better future.
Three Tang-Style Poets
Yi Tal (1539–1612) Ch'oe Kyŏngch'ang (1539–1583)
Paek Kwanghun (1537–1582)
Their poems reveal emotions in an indirect way rather than through logical statement, freeing themselves from the constraints of earlier Chinese poetry and the tendency toward argumentation.
They espoused the creativity of Tang poetry and emphasized poetic feelings through the suggestive portrayal of scenery, but their works reveal limitations as they skirt the troubling topics of defeat, disappointment, sadness, and worry.
New Trends: The Practical Learning Scholars
Literature written in Chinese of the period is characterized by an influx of writers from other classes, active interchanges with vernacular literature, and a search for new literary styles. The accomplishments of the literati of practical learning and the middle people reflect the new sensibility that broke away from the entrenched tradition of earlier literature. They emphasized not only Confucian ideas but also the learning of practical skills from other countries, such as new Chinese agricultural techniques.
Chŏng Yagyong (1762–1836삼국사기)
His numerous works protest the bitter reality of people thrown out of their homes into the streets and fields, as he lived with common people and understood their lives. The poem "狼兮豺兮" ( ) criticizes the local functionaries and greedy officials who exploit the people, using the metaphor of wolves stealing chickens.
The Chosŏn Style
The writers of practical learning in late Chosŏn had a deep understanding of Korean national literature and intensified their efforts to introduce everyday language into their work. Pak Chiwŏn advocated the Chosŏn style with its originality and independence, using the Chinese letters but with a distinct style and content. Chŏng Yagyong advocated writing Chosŏn poetry to overcome the constraints of Chinese prototypes, focusing on the natural features, history, and everyday life of Korea. The middle people, such as technical officials and clerks in the central government, emerged as a new group of writers who contributed to the demise of the scholar-official's literary monopoly.
Chosŏn Fiction in Chinese
Kŭmo sinhwa (New Stories from Gold Turtle Mountain삼국사기) by
Kim Sisŭp (1435–1493삼국사기)
The earliest Korean classical fiction, consisting of five narratives influenced by Buddhism, Taoism, and folkloristic elements. It illustrates that Korean literature fundamentally entered the age of the novel.
Other Genres of Chosŏn Fiction in Chinese
Tales of wonder ("Chŏnki"): Originated in China, became a favorite type of narrative prose among the literary elite.
The typical plot involves main characters of noble birth but retains a strong propensity toward romance and fantasy.
Biography:
Prose genre written with the intent to transmit the life history of an individual under certain ideological restrictions.
The Emergence of Vernacular Fiction in Korean
The emergence of vernacular fiction in Korean, or Hangul literature, was influenced by both external and internal factors. The new social reality and literary environment after the Japanese and Manchu invasions created a demand for a literary form corresponding to contemporary reality, as a growing number of commoners became the main consumers of this genre.
The long tradition of writing fiction in literary Chinese, as well as the introduction, translation, and adaptation of popular Chinese fiction (such as Romance of the Three Kingdoms and Journey to the West), also stimulated the development of vernacular fiction in Korea.
The formation of a wide readership in vernacular fiction and the rise of a commodity economy, in which peasants produced items for cash, led to the production of fiction for mass consumption through commercial institutions like lending libraries and the publication of woodblock editions. This, in turn, stimulated writers to create new stories to gain money, further contributing to the great popularity of vernacular fictions.
Rejection of Vernacular Fiction
Despite its growing popularity, vernacular fiction was still rejected by conservative Confucian scholars as disrupting customs and corrupting morality. The main reasons for this rejection were:
Fiction presents examples of negative human types such as malcontents, dissenters, outlaws, and rebels. It is morally harmful because it depicts passions, fantasies, and dreams that are best suppressed. It presents a distorted version of the real world and depicts improbabilities such as traffic between human beings and the dead, ghosts, and other supernatural beings. It exposes people's instinctual behavior, especially sex, and stimulates base desires, which are seen as a hindrance to moral education. It creates a world other than that sanctioned by authority and therefore offers an unofficial view of reality.
These reasons contributed to the fact that most authors of vernacular fiction and the dates of their composition remain unknown, as writers did not want to be recognized as authors of fictions.
Categories of Vernacular Fiction
Vernacular fiction in Korea can be classified by the elements of structure, characters, and themes, including heroic, dream vision, romance, family, clan, and manners-related types.
Heroic Fiction
The Japanese and Manchu invasions shook the stable Sinocentric East Asian social order, and the many contradictions of early Chosŏn society gradually
surfaced. This led to the emergence of heroic fiction, which dealt with human life and the problems of the time.
The most representative work of this genre is The Tale of Hong Kiltong by Hŏ Kyun (1569-1618), which can be divided into three parts:
The first part depicts the contradictions of a family system in which Hong Kiltong, a secondary son by a concubine of low birth, cannot address his father and brothers as such. The second part shows Hong Kiltong as the head of the Save-the-Poor Gang, which steals from the rich and helps the poor. The third part presents a utopia of contemporary popular imagination through the construction of the island kingdom Lüdao.
The structure of heroic fiction typically follows a pattern where a hero of noble birth and extraordinary nature is born under unusual circumstances, escapes with the help of a rescuer or foster parent, and finally returns to society after developing strength and intelligence. There is then a new crisis, not for the hero but for the society, which the hero resolves, gaining glory and recognition from the king or emperor.
Dream Visions and Romance Fiction
Another important tradition in Korean vernacular fiction is the dream- journey discourse, in which literati critical of mid-Chosŏn society could express their resentment through the imaginary space of a dream world. Notable examples include:
"Taegwanjae mongyu rok" ("Record of a Dream Journey at Great Observation Study") by Sim U˘I (fl. 1475–1507) "Talch'ŏn mongyu rok" ("Record of a Dream Journey to Talch'ŏn") by Yun Kyesŏn (1577–1604)
Soon after the Tale of Hong Kiltong and the outbreak of two wars in Korea, Kim Manjung wrote the masterpiece Dream of Nine Clouds, which inherited various traditions of dream-journey discourse. The work skillfully contrasts Confucian secularism, which recognizes wealth and honor as the greatest values, with the transient view of Buddhism that denies their worth and pursues the transcendent life. Unlike earlier dream-journey works, in Dream of Nine Clouds, the main character achieves enlightenment after the dream, realizing that it was a dream.
Dream of Nine Clouds became the model of classical literary fiction and inspired many imitations, such as Kuun ki (Record of Nine Clouds), Oksŏn mong (Dream of Hŏ Kŏt'ong), Ongnu mong (Dream of the Jade Tower), and Im Hoŭn chŏn (Tale of Im Hoŭn).
Love Fictions
While heroic fiction and other types of classical fiction approached the problem of love by depicting the male protagonist's affairs with women, there is a series of works that concentrate on the trials of a young couple
