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Study Guide U3 Nullification (U.S.
Constitution) Questions with
Rationale
- Impacts of western expansion on Native Americans Northwest Ordinance (1787) → Effect: encouraged Western expansion, disastrous for Indian territorial rights Organized western territory for settlement, land sales would make up large portion of national revenue ● Portion of land sales to fund education in the region ● Ban on slavery in new territory The expansion of slavery in the deep South and adjacent western lands and rising antislavery sentiment began to create distinctive regional attitudes toward slavery
- Causes and effects of the American Revolution
Causes
The aftermath of the French and Indian War would help to cause the American Revolutionary War between the colonists and the British. The colonists no longer had to deal with the French in the Ohio River Valley, and they felt compelled to travel and settle in the west.
These laws and policies ( Stamp Act 1765, Sugar Act 1764, Quartering Act 1765, Townshend Act 1767, Tea Act 1773 ) were a significant factor in the growing tensions between the colonies and the British government that eventually led to the American Revolution
Effects
Domestic
Women’s rights, slavery, democracy, equality, and freedom of religion were all important ideas during and after the revolution.
The Declaration of Independence stated that “all men were created equal.” What about the women? Abigail Adams, the wife of President John Adams, was a noted advocate for women in this period, writing to him to "remember the ladies."
Most women of the American Revolution still did traditional domestic work. “ Republican Motherhood ” evolved as a consequence of the Revolution. Republicanism meant that one should be a good citizen and be civic-minded. Women could fulfill this duty by being good mothers to their children and taking responsibility to instill republican principles in the youth of a new country.
created. Similar to the American Revolution, the French Revolutionary leaders issued a guiding document that had clear Enlightenment principles. The Declaration of Rights of Man and of the Citizen sought to guide the French people toward natural rights, equality, and a representative government that derived its authority from the people—establishing a new political order based on democracy.
On the Caribbean island of Haiti, Haitian slaves embraced the ideals of both the American Revolution and the French Revolution in rebelling against their French masters. Under the leadership of Toussaint L’Ouverture, the Haitians achieved freedom from France in 1804. Haiti established equality and citizenship. In a unique moment, leaders redistributed land to the formerly enslaved and free black people as Haiti became the first black-led country in the western hemisphere
Revolutionaries in Latin America led successful rebellions. Simon Bolivar guided a diverse independence movement through Venezuela, Columbia, Ecuador, and Peru. He wrote the Jamaica Letter (1815), which advocated independence for the Latin American nations and identified “Spanish Americans” as a group distinct from the Spaniards back in Europe.
- Causes and effects of the French and Indian War
Causes
Colonial rivalry intensified between Britain and France in the mid-18th century, as the growing population of the British colonies expanded into the interior of North America, threatening French–Indian trade networks and American Indian autonomy.
The competition among the British, French, and American Indians for economic and political advantage in North America culminated in the Seven Years’ War (the French and Indian War), in which Britain defeated France and allied American Indians
● Began as a territorial dispute in the Ohio River Valley ● George Washington sent to expel the French from Ft. Duquesne- diplomatic effort turns violent
The Seven Years’ War erupted as a result of European rivalries in North America
Effects
Britain achieved a major expansion of its territorial holdings by defeating the French, but at tremendous expense, setting the stage for imperial efforts to raise revenue and consolidate control over the colonies.
● Territorial Gains
- Britain gains Canada , Florida and all territory east of Mississippi River
- Spain gets Louisiana Territory ● British debt
- War more expensive than previous 3
- British landowners already paying highest taxes ● Raising revenue
- Sugar Act (1764) and Stamp Act (1765) the first attempts to raise revenue from colonies ● Consolidating control
- British troops stationed in N. America to protect new territory ● Will lead to conflicts with Natives
- Quartering Act (1765) passed to ease cost of occupation
- The British won despite slow start
- Most decisive war between European powers, large territorial gains for Britain
- Large debt from the war as the cause for revenue raising efforts
- Views of Hamilton vs Jefferson
● XYZ Affair, 1797
- France asked for bribes from American diplomats to meet with foreign minister
- Heightened tensions lead to the Quasi-War (1798-1800)
- Weaknesses of the articles of confederation Weaknesses Congress had no power to levy or collect taxes Congress had no power to regulate foreign trade Congress had no power to enforce laws Approval of 9/13 states was needed to enact laws 13/13 states needed to approve amendments to the Articles The government had no executive branch, reflecting colonial suspicions of tyranny and federal authority. There was no national court system
- Shays’ rebellion note
Shays Rebellion 1786-87 in Massachusetts, anger over high taxes, debtors prisons, lack of paper money
- Whiskey Rebellion
One of the first challenges to Hamilton’s program was the Whiskey Rebellion of 1794. Farmers in southwestern Pennsylvania protested harshly against the whiskey tax, which was the government's primary source of money. President Washington would send a militia to western Pennsylvania and squash the uprising. Federalists supported this action, while Antifederalists hated it.
These political differences within the U.S. would create informal political parties that differed in their view of government.
- Reasons America won the war of independence against Britain
Alliance with France Arguably the single most important of Benjamin Franklin's many contributions to his nation was securing a French alliance during the revolution. Without the financial and
military assistance provided by France, the colonists would certainly have fared much worse against the mighty British empire.
British Debt Ironically, this was one of the key factors that caused the revolution in the first place. Britain had acquired a massive debt fighting the French and Indian War. It attempted to pay down that debt by taxing colonists through the Stamp Act, generating far more resentment than revenue. When hostilities first erupted, the crown did not anticipate that the war would drag on as long as it did (nor cost them so much). The ever-growing expenses of the war piled on top of an already enormous mountain of debt that Britain could no longer afford.
- Republican motherhood
In response to women’s participation in the American Revolution, Enlightenment ideas, and women’s appeals for expanded roles, an ideal of “republican motherhood” gained popularity. It called on women to teach republican values within the family and granted women a new importance in American political culture.
● Women’s participation in Revolution
- Boycotts, Daughters of Liberty , soldiers, maintaining colonial economy ● Republican Motherhood
- Expanded accepted level of education for women
- Still a largely domestic role, no equality guaranteed in new governments
- Abigail Adams ’ request “remember the ladies” ● Mary Wollstonecraft’s Vindication of the Rights of Women (1792) widely read and debated
- Judith Sargent Murray’s On the Equality of the Sexes (1790)
- Examples of colonial resistance against Britain
Pontiac's Rebellion
- Successes of the articles of confederation. (Northwest Ordinance and Land Ordinance)
Although there were many weaknesses of the Articles, there were two strengths. Congress placed newly acquired western lands under its control for the benefit of all states:
- The Land Ordinance of 1785 - allowed the federal government to sell western lands to pay off the national debt and organize these new lands into townships and public schools. 1. The new nation was "land rich," but was "money poor." Government leaders looked for ways to use the land to fund services, such as public education! This ordinance set a precedent for the public funding of schools. 2. As mentioned, it also established a plan for dividing the land. The government would first survey the land, and then divide it into townships. Individuals could purchase a section of land and even further divide it into smaller units. 3. Government leaders hoped the buyers of this land would develop farms and establish communities, developing settlements across the western territories.
- The Northwest Ordinance of 1787 - set a process for new states to join the United States of America, ensuring the country would continue to grow. New states were equal in status to existing states (the 13 colonies). 1. Congress would appoint a territorial governor and judges 2. When the territory reached 5,000 voting residents, which were at the time white males, the settlers could write a temporary constitution and elect their own government. 3. When the population reached 60,000 free inhabitants, the settlers could write a state constitution, which had to be approved by Congress. Once approved, the state would be granted statehood with no slavery allowed.
- Division over desire for independence
● Federalists were in favor of ratifying the Constitution and believed that a stronger national government was necessary to address the problems facing the country under the Articles of Confederation. They argued that the Constitution would provide the needed stronger central government that would be better able to regulate commerce, provide for the common defense, and protect individual rights. They were often propertied men who did not believe in states' rights. ● Antifederalists , on the other hand, were opposed to ratifying the Constitution. They believed that the Constitution would create a powerful national government that would threaten the rights and sovereignty of the states. They also worried that the Constitution did not include a Bill of Rights to protect individual liberties and that it would lead to an oppressive government. Antifederalists were largely rural farmers.
- Why were the Articles of Confederation created to have such a weak central government The Articles of Confederation created a national governing system that placed most power in the hands of the states. The Founders feared giving too much power to a central government, which might become tyrannical.
- proclamation of 1763
However, the British had other plans for their subordinates. Surprisingly, the British issued the Proclamation of 1763. This act prohibited the colonists from traveling beyond the Appalachian Mountains. The British felt that this would prevent problems with the Native Americans, but the colonists detested this restrictive law and broke it at will.
● Proclamation of 1763
- Prevented colonists from further Westward movement.
- British attempt to avoid further conflict with settlers and natives
- Angered colonists
- Issues of frontier Americans and examples of these conflicts / issues
- Alien and Sedition Acts
The Federalists created the Alien and Sedition Acts of 1798, which slowed the naturalization process and restricted free speech. This was seen as a political attack on Jeffersonians, allowing the Federalist Party (which was in power at the time) to suppress political opposition.
Newer citizens tended to support the Democratic-Republican Party, so the Alien Act made it more difficult for immigrants to become citizens. The Sedition Act also made it a crime to publish false, scandalous, or malicious statements about the government or its officials. Critics argued that the Sedition Act was a violation of the First Amendment, which guarantees the freedom of speech and the freedom of the press. The only journalists who were prosecuted under the Sedition Act were editors of Democratic-Republican newspapers.
By 1800, America had faced and survived numerous domestic and foreign challenges to its future and prosperity. It had earned its freedom from Britain and was determined to establish a democratic example for the world.
Thomas Jefferson and James Madison responded to these acts with drafted documents. Jefferson secretly wrote the Kentucky Resolutions, and Madison wrote the Virginia Resolutions. Both of them were simply saying that the federal government had legally exceeded its power with the Alien and Sedition Laws. They argued that since the states created the Constitution, the states had the right to nullify, or not follow, any legislation that they deemed necessary.
After the Federalist Party lost power in the 1800 election, the Democratic-Republican Party, which was led by Jefferson, took control of the government. As part of its efforts to roll back the Federalist policies of the previous administration, the Democratic-Republicans repealed the Alien and Sedition Acts.
● Alien and Sedition Acts, 1798
- Passed to limit dissent and criticism from D-R
- VA & KY Resolutions
Thomas Jefferson and James Madison responded to these acts with drafted documents. Jefferson secretly wrote the Kentucky Resolutions, and Madison wrote the Virginia Resolutions. Both of them were simply saying that the federal government had legally exceeded its power with the Alien and Sedition Laws. They argued that since the states created the Constitution, the states had the right to nullify, or not follow, any legislation that they deemed necessary.
● Virginia and Kentucky Resolutions, 1798 - 99
- Argued that states could nullify federal laws
- Nullification
Calhoun’s pamphlet sparked a national debate over the doctrine of nullification and its constitutionality. Former president John Quincy Adams was one of the leading voices opposing Calhoun and nullification. He argued that it was the Supreme Court, not the states, that had the ultimate authority to declare federal legislation unconstitutional. And although Jackson was sympathetic to Southerners who complained that protective tariffs damaged their interests, he refused to countenance threats of nullification. Jackson supported states’ rights but viewed nullification as a prelude to secession, and he vehemently opposed any measure that could potentially break up the Union. In July 1832, in an effort to compromise, he signed a new tariff bill that lowered most import duties to their 1816 levels.
This compromise measure failed to satisfy Southern radicals who wished to see the tariff repealed, and in November 1832, a convention of Southern politicians and proponents of states’ rights met to discuss nullification. The convention declared the tariffs of 1828 and 1832 unconstitutional and therefore unenforceable in the state of South Carolina. The delegates to the convention threatened to secede if the federal government forcibly sought to collect import duties.
President Jackson again sought to compromise. In March 1833, he signed a
● Being born with a tabula rasa , or blank slate, is a central tenet of Enlightenment thought. It suggests that people are born without innate knowledge or predispositions and that their experiences and environment shape who they become. This creates the idea that everyone is born equal and the son of a king does not have a divine right to rule. ● John Locke wrote a work of political philosophy, titled, "Two Treatises of Government." He argued that people have certain inalienable rights, including the right to life, liberty, and property, that are protected by the government. He believed that these rights are granted by God and are not dependent on the government or any other authority. If any government did not serve its purpose of granting these natural rights , the people had the right to alter or abolish it. ● Thomas Hobbes was best known for his work on the social contract. He argued that the natural state of humanity is a state of war and that people form governments in order to escape this state and ensure their own safety and security. Hobbes believed that the role of government is to provide order and stability, and he argued that people must give up some of their rights in order to live under a strong, centralized government (as stated by the social contract). ● Baron de Montesquieu was a political theorist best known for his ideas about checks and balances and the separation of powers. He argued that in order to protect against tyranny, a government should be divided into different branches, each with its own distinct powers and responsibilities. ● Jean-Jacques Rousseau was a French philosopher who expanded on the social contract theory, emphasizing the importance of the common good. He argued that people are naturally free and equal and the role of the government is to serve the common good and protect the will of the people / their natural rights. ● As discussed, the idea of the social contract arose during this time period, suggesting that people agree to give up some of their individual freedom and rights in order to live in a society with a shared authority or government. According to the social contract theory, government is a product of this agreement, and it exists to serve the common good and protect the natural rights of its citizens.
These ideas generally included individual rights, republicanism, democracy, the separation of powers, equality, a distrust of aristocracy, and an emphasis on science over religion.
The new thinking of the Enlightenment influenced Ben Franklin, John Adams, Thomas Jefferson, James Madison, and Alexander Hamilton in their roles as Founding Fathers. We will see how these ideas influenced the drafting of important revolutionary documents such as the Declaration of Independence and the Constitution as well in the next few study guides.
- Remember the Ladies from Abigail Adams
Abigail Adams, the wife of President John Adams, was a noted advocate for women in this period, writing to him to "remember the ladies."
- Mercantilism
- Federalist vs Antifederalist views Federalist Anti-Federalist
Leaders (^) Alexander Hamilton, James Madison, John Jay
Patrick Henry, Samuel Adams, John Hancock Stance The Articles of Confederation is weak; favored stronger central government
Liked elements of the Articles; favored weak central government and stronger state governments
About Them
Mostly wealthy property owners Mostly small farmers, shopkeepers, laborers Supports (^) Federalist Papers Strong national government threatened rights of the common people
Powers of central government need to be strengthened to protect the nation on a global scale and solve domestic problems
Constitution lacked Bill of Rights
● This compromise resolved the disagreement over how much power each state should have in the new government and helped get the Constitution ratified.
This is how we established our government with a bicameral Congress, representing both the Virginia and New Jersey Plans. It allowed for equal representation in Congress and balanced the power of small and large states.
The Three-Fifths Compromise
Now that a framework for Congress was established, the delegates at the Constitutional Convention discussed the representation of slave states.
The Three-Fifths Compromise determined how enslaved people would be counted in terms of representation and taxation. The compromise was reached between the northern states, which were generally more industrialized and had fewer enslaved people, and the southern states, which were more agrarian and had more enslaved people.
Delegates from the states participated in the Constitutional Convention and through negotiation, collaboration, and compromise proposed a constitution.
● Convention called after failure to improve Articles at Annapolis Convention ● 12 of 13 states sent delegates ● Constitution based primarily on Madison’s Virginia Plan with 3 branches of government ● Connecticut Compromise
- Settled issue of representation with bicameral legislature ● Creation of Electoral College to maintain importance of states in Presidential elections
The Constitutional Convention compromised over the representation of slave states in Congress and the role of the federal government in regulating both slavery and the slave trade, allowing the prohibition of the international slave trade after 1808.
● Southern states ask for protections
- ⅗ Compromise - counting method to determine representation
- Fugitive Slave Clause in Article IV guaranteed return of runaways across state lines
- Delay in banning international slave trade
- The concept of Virtual representation
Virtual representation is an idea developed in the British colonial period that said members elected to Parliament represented the whole British empire, not specific people or geographic locations. This was rejected by the American colonists that sought to be represented by their geographic location.
- How geography relates to slavery
- Join or die cartoon and the Albany Plan
Franklin’s Albany Plan attempted to establish a colonial government based on home rule. It called for three things:
● A Grand Council would be formed with elected representatives from the different colonies to oversee matters of common defense, western expansion, and Indian affairs. ● A President General would be established and appointed by the King who would preside. They would have the power to veto decisions made by the Grand Council. ● The Council would be authorized to collect taxes for military expenditures.
The Albany Plan was seen as a radical proposal at the time, as it called for a level of colonial unity and self-governance that was unprecedented. It was ultimately rejected by the British government and the colonies, but it is considered an important early attempt to address the growing tensions between the colonies and the mother country and to find a way for the colonies to work together for their mutual benefit. The colonists felt it did not give them enough authority, while London argued it gave them too much.
The above political cartoon is one of the "first" U.S. political cartoons, and it was created by Ben Franklin. It highlighted the need for colonial unity as he promoted the Albany Plan.
