Download SCIE 326 UNIT 1-8 SG & LO EXAM QUESTIONS AND CORRECT ANSWERS 100% VERIFIED and more Exams Social Sciences in PDF only on Docsity!
SCIE 326 UNIT 1-8 SG & LO EXAM QUESTIONS AND
CORRECT ANSWERS 100% VERIFIED
Why is it important to study science? - Answer 1. unlimited freedom of inquiry
- important to know science is not static, and it evolves
- important to study science and scientific pov for even if no one else plans to engage
Reason why religion and science is on opposing sides - Answer religious groups oppose all research on methods for the control of human fertility, religious groups challenge the freedom of inquiry
General definition of science - Answer way to generate relative knowledge, and an accurate way of gaining this knowledge. Need to have inductive attitude, based on human activity
Describe Roentgen's discovery of x rays - Answer was holding a small lead disk between phosphar tube and cathoder ray tube, noticed the shadows of his hand
Kekule's discovery of Benzene - Answer - issue was the benzene does not accept any new H molecules
- had chain of carbons close in on themselves to make room for bonding
- visual approach to benzene
Discovery of energy bands in solids by the use of quantam mechanics, used the fact that ions in a metal are arranged in an orderly, periodic fashion
Biogeographical studies by the Answer humbolt journeyed to south america and mexico,
realized that there was differences between geographical location and vegetation
developed the theory of biogreography: the physical condition of an area dictate
characteristics of an ecosystem
Discovery of smallpox vaccine - Answer Jenner used inoculated cowpox virus collected from pustules. If you had cowpox you wouldn't get small pox, but only if a pustules is at its strongest.
four characteristics of a good question - Answer 1. it has depth
- it is tantalizing (hold out possibility for answer)
- it is suggestive (almost tells how to find it)
- it is fruitful
what is the relation between the sense of wonder and science? - The desire to understand (to wonder) and the desire for truth (science)
Three criteria for valid answer in science - Answer 1. no ans can involve a logical contradiction
- every ans must be consistent with theories or provide a good reason for changing theories
- no ans can be violated an established empirical fact without explanations
Describe the stages in the development of a scientific idea, or an entire field of science: roland's four stage model- ecdv - Answer 1. exploratory stage: initial stage, observing the facts, performing experiments, getting data
- conceptual stage: developing and selection of concepts that will help the principal you're looking for
- developmental stage: examining all the possible sequences of the principals
- verification stage: each prediction is systematically subjected to the test of experience
five questions that can be answered in science - Answer 1. will this experiment interfere with the natural behaviour of the system?
crackpot science: claim of discovery that violates all scientific discovery
cargocult science: type of nonsense science where the forms of scientific practice are imitated with little understanding of their actual nature
open belief system - Answer open to criticism and can be disapproved by testing i.e. science
closed belief system - Answer closed to criticism ie. fundamentalism religion
Describe what a statement must satisfy if it is to be, at least potentially, a scientific statement. - 1. Must be explanatory
- Must lead to testable observations through replicable methods
Logical Positivism - belief that a concept is meaningful only if it can be empirically verified
Relativism - belief that there is no absolute truth only relative truth
Realism - Answer that we should look to observable and unobservable aspects of the world to understand science
Operationalism - Answer use positivism as its foundation, it defines scientific concepts in terms of operations used to approve/disapprove
Reductionism - Answer idea of reducing complex interactions and make them easier to study
Emergence - Answer collective phenomena or behaviours in complex system that do not exist in their individual parts
three types of knowledge - Answer episteme, tekhne, gnosis
episteme - Answer knowledge in the sense of understanding that fits in with a conceptual framework
define tekhne - Answer referred to skill, or know how - practical knowledge
define gnosis - Answer intuitive apprehension of truth, or gained through direct insight into reality
define rationalism - Answer belief in innate ideas, reason and deduction
define empiricism - Answer belief in induction, sense perception, no innate ideas
three assumptions about metaphysical assumptions of science? - Answer 1. nature is ordered
- the order is comprehensible to human reason
- our understanding of this order can be communicated without subjective bias
three basic mythico-magical assumptions about the real world - Answer 1. nature is capricious
- everything is determined by external willful powers
- the future can be controlled by magic
Holton's four principals of integrity in science - Answer 1. try to get rights at all costs, sparing no costs
- try to be scientist first, a specialist second
- try to explore and contribute to the role of science as part of our overall worldview
- try to do your duty as scientist and as a human being
world. - Answer -Science tries to bring coherence to our experiences while religion tries to bring meaning to our experiences.
-Science is described in terms which can be accurately defined and described to another person. Religious experiences are often private or personal and a person may be unable to describe the actual experience.
-Science is concerned with the discovering of new and better ways to understand the world and hence is always subject to revision when confronted with any new kind of idea or evidence. Religion, however, relates to eternal verities that are not at all subjected to revision.
Write a short essay (300-500 words) contrasting the scientific and religious senses of the word "meaning," as described in Chapter 9 of What Science Is. - Answer The scientific sense of the word meaning lies in the essence of what it describes. Scientific statements are made to describe sensory information and convey a picture to another person. Scientific statements are made about nature and how certain processes work. These statements define what is meant by the term 'natural'. Scientific statements are, in this sense, explanations of meaning in terms of 'how', how is a river flowing? How does change of color occur in leaves?
The religious meaning of the word meaning lies in the way the author feels, and what he experiences. Religious meaning attempts to bring meaning to the life of an individual or to the universe. The purpose of the religious statements is to explain meaning within the broad connotation of 'why', for example, why does the river flow? Religion explains transcendence.
Give examples from your own life of times when you have acted in accordance with the three moral qualities that are involved in the inductive attitude. - Answer -Intellectual courage - to be ready to revise any one of our beliefs
-Intellectual honesty - to be willing to change a belief when there is a compelling reason to change it
-Wise restraint - not to change beliefs capriciously, without good reason.
Similarities and differences between research in the sciences and in the humanities. - Answer Pure or natural science deals with the study of nature. It is empirical, meaning they are addressed using our five senses that is sight, sound, touch, taste, smell. Pure science facts can be verified by everybody as they are based on experience and observation. Research within science begins with curiosity and a hypothesis. Afterwards, the hypothesis is either supported or not supported with facts and evidence from the research itself. It can be verified by many, if not all, people.
Humanities or social science is concerned with human behavior and societies. The results are neither empirical nor statistical. Examples include Ethics, Aesthetics, Poetry, Fine/Performing Arts, Religion. There is no objective way to verify the data. The only methods of judgement are intuition, feeling, opinion, debate and criticism. There is almost never a consensus about them. Research within humanities has the same beginning curiosity and a hypothesis. The author can then lend supporting thoughts and ideas to his hypothesis as well as attempt to discredit opposing ideas. However, the hypothesis in itself cannot be proved or disproved on quantitative terms and remains a matter of debate amongst scholars with difference of opinions.
write a definition of science that is consistent with the readings presented in the Study Guide and in the textbooks - Answer Science is an accurate method for gaining knowledge of the world using the sum total of all the facts, definitions, theories, techniques and relationships found in all of the individual scientific disciplines and obtained through a specific methodology of investigation and thinking.
Discuss some of the possible reasons that the scientific revolution did not take place in China or in the Islamic world. - Answer The Islamic world did not reject the material world and initially believed that to gain knowledge of the world is a spiritual exercise. The Mongol invasion changed that as it not only decimated cities, the Islamic people swiftly returned to its fundamental religious roots when facing such a bleak conquest.
China has been dominated by Confucianism, which occurs when ethics and proper social behavior are emphasized. Ethical interpretations were projected onto natural phenomena rather than prompting a change or improvement onto a theory. Example: if a predicted astronomical eclipse did not occur it was attributed to a special virtue rather than a computational error. Also, Chinese scripture is unsuited for mathematical equations. As well, China was ruled by an Emperor who would at times halt exploration or technological development on his whim.
Select one of the examples (insert here) of a scientific discovery presented in Chapter 1 of What Science Is, by Gregory N. Derry, and enumerate the ways in which this example corresponds to the definition of science which you have developed. - Answer Edward Jenner's discovery of a smallpox vaccine using inoculated cowpox virus collected from pustules. Jenner postulated a theory and studied it using collection of data, facts, ideas for many years. Careful charting and note taking allowed him to consider all outcomes before beginning human testing. The tests were replicated and quantified as well as easily reproduced while using the same methodology.
What are the two kinds of error Giambattista Vico says can be made in thinking about
Using lenses and compound lenses to see things that are otherwise unnoticeable to the naked eye. Using one's curiosity and wonder to look at things closer such as a droplet of pond water and noting the many microbes present.
3- Discrepancies - notating any differences in data arising from experiments or research which should not warrant any discrepancies. Paying attention to this as not simply mathematical errors or 'co-incidence' but rather doing more research and noting the reason. As in the case of studying the atmospheric composition and thus discovering Argon and the inert gases.
Chapter 5 of What Science Is describes the history of our theories of planetary motion. Apply the eight-stage model of scientific development given in Discussion 3.2 to map out the corresponding stages in this history. Note that you may need to consider more than a single cycle of this process. - Answer 1- Initial Interest
Greek philosophers and Greek astronomy. Plato questioned why the planets appeared to be in retrograde motion some of the time.
2- Delineation of the Phenomenon
Copernicus tables of planetary movement with initial reports of a heliocentric model.
3- Empirical Database
Tycho's set of planetary observations taken over many years and recorded meticulously.
4- Classification and Conceptualization
Kepler's use of Tycho's data to postulate that planets do not have a consistent speed.
5- Generalization and Theory Construction
Kepler's ability to provide correct mathematical description for the motions of the planets.
6- Hypothesis Generation and Testing
7- Analysis and Debate
Galileo's use of the telescope and his strong and interesting Italian prose brought new light to the Copernican system.
8- Assimilation into Existing Theory
Newtons Laws of Motions provided the correct explanations for the heliocentric model as well as the planets elliptical movements.
Write a short essay (300-500 words) explaining how both top-down and bottom-up approaches were utilized in the development of the periodic table of the elements, as discussed in Chapter 2 of What Science Is. - Answer In bottom up view, we begin with the most basic components of the system, and the way in which these elementary components interact and fit together to make up the system. This was done through analysis of atomic weights and properties and then systematically organizing them in groups of similar properties. Elements were written on index cards and then taped onto a wall in groups of similarities.
In top down view, it is assumed that a system must satisfy certain constraints, either on the bases of general laws of nature, or in order to maintain its integrity as a
While categorizing the elements based on their properties, researchers found gaps or holes where elements should be. They postulated that these spaces were for elements that had not yet been discovered and were able to, quite accurately, predict the properties for these elements. These gaps were left open and elements were later discovered that met the criterion set forth for them, subsequently the elements took their place on the table.
Essay Short (300-500 words) on the way in which the formal purpose of science relates to and supports one or more of its functional purposes. - Answer The formal purpose of science can be described as the gathering of knowledge about the world and organizing and condensing that knowledge into testable laws and theories. Science is the search for the truth. Functional purposes appear to be more closely linked to technology. Functional purposes improve quality of life of such as freeing people from drudgery and repetitive labor or providing leisure. While science and technology do go hand in hand as advancements in science are economically used for advancements in technology, there are other examples of functional purposes that do not have a financial incentive. Improvement in health is one of them. Knowledge about small pox and the mode of transmission and discovery of a vaccine have improved health and well-being to a great extent.
What are some challenges to top-down and bottom-up approaches to science? - Answer A problem with the bottom up approach is that it is often unclear how overall systematic properties emerge from the interaction of system components. Ex/ there is nothing obvious in the atomic nature of hydrogen and oxygen telling us to expect water to be wet.
One of the difficulties with the top down approach is that, quite often, it is far from obvious what general principle or set of principles is appropriate to characterize a system. Lack of clarity on this can easily lead to imposition of inappropriate conditions and requirements. Ex/ in medicine the overall principle is health. But does that mean lack of pain(painkillers)? Healthy appearance (cosmetic surgery)?
b. What are some possible ways of accounting for deviations from this order?
c. What is the fundamental pattern of explanation which is employed?
d. Is there any area today, scientific or otherwise, to which this form of theory might be applicable? If so, what would the analogue of heat be? Of the closed vessel-or rather "womb"-in which the transformations are to take place? - Answer a. The expected behavior is that all things are in the process of striving towards the state of perfection. The contextual framework of the alchemists was that perfection is gold. However, gold is not always perfection in the context of what it is to be used for.
b. Gold is a soft metal, both pliable and bendable with application of heat. These qualities would not always be advantageous depending on what the metal is to be used for. Using the intended use as the ideal would allow a person to explain why gold is not always ideal.
c. Metamorphosis of a caterpillar to a butterfly was used to illustrate that all nature is in the process of definitive stages that are all attempting to achieve a state of perfection.
d. Any field where it could be justified that the ideals of nature is a constant attempt at a state of perfection. Perhaps, cosmetology or plastic surgery - the ideal would be youthful appearance despite natural age. Analogue of heat would be surgeries and the closed vessel would be a persons body.
What are the defining characteristics of pathological science according to Irving Langmuir? - Answer 1. Experimental effects observed either remain very close to the extreme limits of detectability, or require massive numbers of measurements because of their exceptionally low statistical significance
- The magnitude of the observed effect seems to be independent of the postulated causes, which are barely detectable
- The experiments are claimed to be exceptionally accurate
- The claimed results, if true, appear to have revolutionary theoretical
implications
- Ad Hoc explanations and excuses are offered to account for any and all experimental counter-claims
- The results tend to attract much publicity at first, and then the excitement dies away as failure to replicate is reported, or as some flaw in the experimental procedure is discovered.
These are cases of no dishonesty involved but where people are tricked into false results by a lack of understanding about what human beings can do to themselves in the
way of being led astray by subjective effects, wishful thinking, or threshold interactions.
What are the five defining characteristics of pseudoscience given in Chapter 12 of What Science Is? - Answer 1. Static or Randomly Changing Ideas - no discernable progress in ideas
- Vague Mechanisms to Acquire Understanding - non coherent
understanding or not consistent with observation.
- Loosely Connected Thoughts - wide gaping holes in logic or no logic at
all
- Lack of Organized Skepticism - no engagement with critical thinking
- Disregard of Established Results - does not build on previous work
Consider the many examples of pseudoscience given in Chapter 12 of What Science Is, and classify each as pseudoscience, crackpot science or cargo cult science. Note that some examples may fit more than one category. - Answer 1. Velikovsky and Worlds in Collision - pseudoscience, crackpot
- Perpetual Motion - pseudoscience, cargo cult
- Creation Science - pseudoscience, cargo cult
Give examples of beliefs that are neither factual nor functional, beliefs that are functional but not factual, and beliefs that are both factual and functional. - Answer Factual understanding arises through explanation in terms of a conceptual framework. this explanation must be logically coherent, as well as open to confirmation through repeated observations or experiments. Functional understanding also arises through explanation in terms of a conceptual framework but all that is required is that it leads to appropriate behavior.
The belief that the earth is flat, the presence of an Atlantis, that the Egyptian pyramids can predict the future are all neither factual nor functional. Religious credence can be considered functional and not factual as it delivers an appropriate behavior (good behavior) but has no proven facts. Beliefs that are both factual and functional are most current scientific ideals such as how the tide is connected to the moon as it is proven and will also elicit an appropriate understanding (behavior) of when to expect low/high water levels.
explanatory power (ability to explain more rather than less), simplicity-simple and elegant theory with few assumptions, fertility-a good theory leads to new ideas, applications, new connections to existing theories and new refinements within itself, ability to lead to the prediction of unforeseen results.
Define the three types of knowledge labelled by the Greek terms epistemé, tekhné and gnosis. - Answer Episteme means knowledge in the sense of understanding that is fitting within a conceptual framework. Tekhne is referred to as skill or know how- practical knowledge or ability to do something. Gnosis is the intuitive apprehension of truth, or knowledge gained through direct insight into reality- spiritual truths.
What are the Coherence and Correspondence Theories of Truth, and what is each limited by? - Answer Coherence Theory of truth: The truth of any (true) proposition consists in its coherence with some specified set of propositions. Correspondence Theory of Truth: The truth or falsity of a statement is determined solely by how the statement relates to the world, whether it describes it accurately.
Write a short essay (300-500 words) discussing how suspension of judgement fits the inductive attitude as defined by Pólya (see Discussion 1.1). - Answer Polya describes the inductive attitude as:
One should be ready to revise any ones of our beliefs.
One should change a belief when there is a compelling reason to do so.
One should not change a belief wantonly, without some good reason.
It goes by this criterion since suspension of judgement saves personal judgement that would, in turn, bring some element of bias into creative insights. The natural human tendency is to preserve current beliefs - more so if they are religious in nature. The suspension of judgement enables a 'free play of ideas' and the capacity for real source growth in science.
Rational vs empirical way to do science - Answer (insert here)
Write a short essay (300-500 words) discussing the relation between the Einstein quote given at the beginning of this unit and the Bronowski quote that heads Discussion 7.1. - Answer Einstein: Science can only ascertain what is, but not what should be, and
outside of its domain value judgements of all kinds remain necessary.
Bronowski: The values by which we are to survive are not rules for just and unjust conduct, but are those deeper illuminations in whose light justice and injustice, good and evil, means and ends are seen in fearful sharpness of outline.
Einstein is arguing that science is value free and its purpose is only to seek and state knowledge about the environment. It seems he is saying that scientists should only concern themselves with what they 'can' do and not trouble themselves over what they 'should' do. Value judgments are best left up to philosophers and these must run parallel to and not through science. Bronowski seems to hold the contrary opinion and says that a person's scale of values must "impregnate" or influence every aspect of a person's life including that part which is spent in the practice of science. What Bronowski is saying is that science is, therefore, value-laden since one cannot dislodge his work from what he believes in since these will shed light on the just and unjust ways.
Based on the readings from Chapter 11 and Chapter 15 of What Science Is, and Discussion 7.1, draw up a list of rules for professional conduct for scientists. - Answer Knowledge is public therefore there is no privileged sources and all contributing sources must be acknowledged. Ideas are to be taken on their intrinsic merit and not their source. Claims must be substantiated and not just taken on faith.
Write a short essay (300-500 words) discussing Jacob Bronowski's statement, "[Y]ou cannot know what is true unless you behave in certain ways." 145 - One must act in certain ways to achieve an unbiased and truthful perception of the world. If one only sees a certain point of view or uses only one conceptual framework, then one could be missing half the picture. A good analyst will adopt both or multiple conceptual frameworks temporarily at least in order to see if the outlook on the world changes. In so doing, the person will make an informed decision based on all possible outlooks or choices while not being forced into an immediate or permanent change in point of view. If a person stays static in a certain frame of mind or works only within a particular frame of reference, the person will, potentially learn something false from the world.
Short essay (300-500 words) discuss Darwin's statement, "[A]ll observation must be for or against some view if it is to be of any service." [146] - Answer insert here
The physicists Alan Sokal and Jean Bricmont list four common abuses of science that are found in some areas of new age and postmodern discourse. What are they? - Answer a. longwinded discussions of scientific theories with little or no understanding of the actual meaning of what is being discussed.
preferred.
7 - Simplicity: Theories that provide a sense of closure, a unified understanding of a field of phenomena, are to be sought as the goal of science.
Choose one of the two examples of the development of a scientific theory given in Chapter 2 of What Science Is and discuss ways in which it exemplifies the idea of a good fit. - Answer The theory of continental drift or that the worlds land masses used to be connected prior to some event that displaced them into their current positions highly exemplifies the idea of a good fit. The theory is simple and concise in nature. It is inclusive to why West Africa and East South America have geographically similar coastlines as well as people who are culturally similar. The theory has unity in providing closure and understanding as to why we see these similarities.
Which fallacy of causal reasoning did John Stuart Mill describe as "the most deeply-rooted, perhaps"? - Answer The prejudice that the conditions of a phenomenon must, or at least probably will, resemble the phenomenon itself. Ex/ great events must have great causes, complex events must have complex causes, emotional events must have emotional causes etc.
What is the "fundamental attribution fallacy"? -Answer When observing a person's behavior, we tend to assume that it is characteristic of their personality, rather than a product of the context in which we observe them, even through we explain our own behavior in terms of the situation.
It appears that the perception of events in terms of cause and effect is a built in aspect of the way the human mind interprets the world, to such an extent that we automatically assume causal relations even in completely random sets of experiences. Write a short essay (300-500 words) discussing why such an inbuilt bias might be of value for a hunter-gatherer. - Answer insert here
Write a short essay (300-500 words) defending the contention that the three decision heuristics are necessary for any use of language to think about or communicate experience. - Answer insert here
Identify the two foundations for a well-constructed scientific argument discussed in Chapter 7 of What Science Is. - Answer The 2 foundations of a well-constructed
scientific argument are: reliable empirical evidence and sound logical reasoning.
Define "deductive reason" and "inductive reason," and describe the limitations of each.
- Answer Deductive reasoning/logic is to find relationships between statements (called premises and conclusions) that guarantee the truth of the conclusions IF the premises are true. The truth of the premises implies the truth of the conclusion. Example: syllogism (includes 2 premises and 1 conclusion). Example: All cats are cute. Smokey is a cat. Therefore, Smokey is cute. DISADVANTAGE: we seldom have any well-defined general premises that we know are true.
Inductive reasoning/logic is to use the truth of many particular statements to make a generalization, which is our conclusion. Example: if every cat I've seen is cute, I can conclude that all cats are cute. DISADVANTAGE: conclusions are less certain. Example: I may see an ugly cat tomorrow.
Identify the three general categories of fallacies, and describe one fallacy from each category. Give examples of each category of fallacy from the popular press, television or other public sources. - Answer Invalid Logic - Pulling conclusions from premises that do not correlate.
Invalid Evidence - blatant lies. Often lies of omission.
Statistics - inappropriate interpretation. Inadequate sample group sizes or pulling sample groups from inappropriate populations.
Discussion 8.3 we analyzed and diagrammed an argument for giving creationism equal time with evolution in the public schools. Carry out a similar analysis of the argument against this idea, and construct a diagram based on your analysis. Then, put the pro and con diagrams together in one diagram, and from that one diagram, list two directions that each side of the debate might go forward, to continue developing your argument. - Answer insert here
In Unit 3, you read about the way that John Snow came to his conclusion about how cholera was spread. Review this story, and then construct a diagram of Snow's argument. Clearly identify his basic assumptions, evidence, responses to alternate theories and final conclusions. - Answer There are no firmly established rules for diagramming arguments, but a few general suggestions are listed below.
- Determine what the conclusion is and what the major assumptions of the argument are. In the example shown in Figure 8.3.1, the conclusion is that Azande witchcraft and modern science are equal as explanatory systems; the major assumptions are, first, the
