Harvard Referencing System: A Comprehensive Guide, Study notes of Communication

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School of Education

Harvard Referencing Guide

Updated 2 5/ 09 /

Contents

1 Introduction

It is a convention of academic writing to provide references for the sources that you have used, not only to give the original authors due acknowledgement for their work and so that your tutors can assess your work fairly, but also so that others reading your work can find the sources you have used. For all these reasons, referencing needs to be systematic and accurate. The School of Education policy is that students should use the Harvard system of referencing, as set out in this guide. (There is no set standard for Harvard, so different versions are in use.) The only exception to this is for students on courses where explicit advice has been given that the APA (American Psychological Association) system is an acceptable alternative, for example counselling courses. Referencing consists of two parts: a citation to the work within the main body of your text and a list of references at the end. Harvard and APA are different in format, but follow the same principles of having parenthetical in-text citations and an alphabetical referencing list. In the Harvard system, the in-text citation is an abbreviated reference, which gives the author and the date of publication in parentheses (brackets) at the point at which the idea or work is used. This then enables the reader to find the full reference to the source in the references list at the end of your work. Giving the author’s name and the date also means that the referencing is more transparent than systems that use numbers, as the reader is immediately aware whom or what the writer is citing. The references section in the Harvard system lists all sources that have been directly cited in a work, in alphabetical order by author. This means that it is easy to find a cited source by looking up the author’s name. These full references also provide the title of the work and the publication (if these are different), as well as further information, including the publisher and/or location in which the source can be found. Please note that a bibliography is not used in the Harvard system. A bibliography is a list of sources that have informed your work, but which are not necessarily directly cited. In the Harvard system, you should cite all sources that have influenced your work. If a source has not influenced your work, then it should not be cited, as it is not relevant. If it has influenced your work, you should find a way of citing it to acknowledge this, for example in support of a general comment about what research has shown. Consequently, you should not have a bibliography section in your work unless explicitly instructed that this is a required part of your assignment for other reasons, such as an annotated bibliography task to demonstrate that you have undertaken wider reading. Do not use the referencing style that we use in Moodle, as this is slightly different for design reasons. If you need to use the same reference as one given in Moodle, make sure that you reformat it so that it is consistent with the guidelines in this document.

2 In-text citations

In the Harvard system, in-text citations consist of the author’s family name and the year of publication. Authors’ initials and forenames (given names) should not be used, unless this is essential for disambiguation. Citing is not a substitute for using quotation marks. If you use the exact words of a source, you must both give a citation and use quotation marks (or present the author’s words as a block quotation). It is not enough to simply give a citation, as your reader will not be able to distinguish between your own words and those that are from the source. (See 2.2 for further guidance.) Citations should be written in the same font as the rest of the text. Do not use bold or italics. In this section, we give examples of the most common forms of in-text citation.

2.1 Citing without quotation

In most cases, you will need to cite a source because you are drawing on the ideas in or contribution of the author’s work, not quoting directly. The most common way to cite a reference to a source that has a single author is to write it in one of these two forms: either Marsh (2004) outlines the history of the hidden curriculum. or The history of the hidden curriculum began with the work of Philip Jackson (Marsh, 2004). The syntax of the sentence must be preserved. In the first example, the author is the subject of the sentence, so must be outside the brackets. Where there are three or more authors, all names should be given on the first occasion that the work is cited: either Jordan, Carlile and Stack (2007) recommend active approaches to learning. or Active approaches to learning are strongly recommended (Jordan, Carlile and Stack, 2007). You should use and, not an ampersand (&). If the same reference is cited again, ‘et al.’ may be used. ‘Et al.’ is short for the Latin ‘et alia’ which means ‘and others’. In a subsequent assignment in the same piece of work, you could therefore write: either Jordan et al. (2007) go on to show that… or Students feel lost in large classes (Jordan et al., 2007). If the author has published several works in one year, distinguish between them by adding lower case letters. In various studies by Wertsch (1985a, 1985b, 1985c), the point is made that… If these are cited at different points, add letters in the order in which you mention them in your work. In such cases, you will then list then in the same order in your references list.

If you are quoting a list directly from a source, then make sure that this is clearly introduced as a quotation and set out as a block quotation, indented on both sides, as lists are often left-indented anyway. However, consider whether you need to quote the whole list rather than just summarising and providing a citation. Alternatively, it might be more appropriate to present the list in an appendix.

2.3 Citing a source cited in another source (secondary referencing)

If you are reading a source by one author who cites work by another author, whether or not they quote that author, you must cite the original work as a secondary citation. This is known as secondary referencing. This is very important, as failure to acknowledge a secondary source is just as significant as failure to acknowledge any other source and thus falls under the definition of plagiarism. In the following two examples, Carter and Davidson are authors of the work that you wish to refer to (the primary source or original work), but you have not read this directly for yourself. Barrett is the secondary source where you found the summary of their work. Your citation must include both the primary text and the secondary text, using the words “cited in”. For example: Research carried out in the sixties in the St.Anns area of Nottingham by Carter and Davidson (1966 cited in Barrett, 1991, p.142) found that … or There was considerable poverty in St.Anns in the sixties (Carter and Davidson,1966 cited in Barrett, 1991, p.19). In the following example, Sohal is the primary, or original, source and Moustakas is the secondary source: Sohal (2001), as cited in Moustakas (2005), suggests that the picture was not as bleak as it had been painted. You also need to use secondary referencing if you want to cite a primary source that is mentioned in University of Nottingham teaching materials such as Moodle (see 3.3). For example: Simon (1981 cited in The University of Nottingham, 2018) argued that there was no pedagogy in England. Normally, it is best to select your own quotations from sources that you have read yourself. However, if you want to use a quotation that is in Moodle, and you cannot access the original source, you must provide a secondary citation: The school curriculum can be seen as historically, politically and ideologically situated, since “how a society selects, classifies, distributes, transmits and evaluates the educational knowledge it considers to be public, reflects both the distribution of power and social control” (Bernstein, 1971, p.47 cited in The University of Nottingham, 2018, p.3). Note that the references list at the end of your document should only contain works that you have personally read or accessed, so only the secondary source should be listed in the references. In the above examples, only Barrett, Moustakas and The University of Nottingham would appear in the references. It is also important to realise that the author of the secondary source you are reading may have taken ideas from the primary source, but altered their original meaning by error or through misinterpretation or selective reporting. If you find a useful secondary reference, it is recommended that, where possible, you find and read the original source for yourself rather than rely on someone else’s interpretation. Of course, if you read it yourself, you can then cite it as a primary source, without the need for “cited in”. However, if the secondary source has influenced your interpretation, you should still find a way to cite this as well.

Be particularly careful when using secondary sources that are not authoritative, such as websites and blogs, as these are not subject to editing or peer review, so may not be reliable. Indeed, the author may have taken ideas from other secondary sources without acknowledging these properly. This means that ideas can be second or third-hand by the time you read them, and thus even more likely to be unreliable.

2.4 Use of ibid. and op. cit.

The abbreviations ibid. and op.cit. can be employed to avoid repeating the same citation in the main body of your text. Ibid. is short for ibidem, which, in Latin, means 'in the same place' and can be used when the next reference is the same as the one before. The term op.cit. is an abbreviation for the Latin opere citato, which means in the work cited and can be used when the same reference is cited elsewhere in the body of your text, but may not be the most recent citation. Here is an example of ways in which et al., ibid. and op.cit. could be used within the Harvard system of referencing: According to Margaret Roberts (Roberts, 2003), the first writers to use the word “scaffolding” in an educational context were Wood, Bruner and Ross (Wood, Bruner and Ross, 1976 ). Scaffolding is “the process that enables a child or novice to solve a problem, carry out a task or achieve a goal which would be beyond the child’s unassisted efforts” (Wood et al., 1976 , p.29). This is an idea which originates in Vygotsky’s concept of the zone of proximal development (Vygotsky, 1984). How does he express this idea? He refers to a “new formula” whereby “the only ‘good learning’ is that which is in advance of development” (ibid., p. 56). Margaret Roberts acknowledges that Vygotsky never used the term ‘scaffolding’ himself (op. cit., 2003). What he did do is describe “several types of assistance that might be given when a child” is “engaged in a problem-solving activity” (ibid., p.21). In the next section, we will explore these various types of assistance and find instances of them in my lesson. However, if there is some distance between the citations, then it is better to repeat the citation rather than use ibid or op cit and make your reader search for the previous citation.

3.1.6 Book with an editor, but no author Curren, R. (Ed.) (2007) Philosophy of education: an anthology. Oxford: Blackwell. If there is more than one editor, the abbreviation should be Eds, without a full stop (as the final letter of the abbreviated word is retained). 3.1.7 Translated book Foucault, M. (1991 [1977]) Discipline and Punish: The Birth of the Prison (trans. A. Sheridan). London: Penguin. The in-text citation should give the date of the version you have read, in this case the 1991 translation, not the 1977 original. 3.1.8 E-book Cox, J. and Carlile, N. (2008) Participatory research in educational settings [online]. Oxford: Blackwell Publishing. Available at: http://www.mylibrary.com/Browse/open.asp?ID= [Accessed 10 August 2012]. 3.1.9 Chapter in an edited book Cite and list by the author of the chapter. The book title should be in italics, as this is the publication, but not the chapter title. Hickmann, M.E. (1985) The implications of discourse skills in Vygotsky's developmental theory. In: Wertsch, J.V. (Ed.) Culture, communication and cognition, pp. 19 - 54. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. You should give the page numbers of the chapter. 3.1.10 Extract in a book of readings A reader, or book of readings, is a collection of previously published works. Sometimes these are edited, so are slightly different from the original publication. However, even if the extract is unchanged from the original, the reference must indicate that you have read it in the reader, not in the original publication. An extract from a book of readings is referenced in a similar way to a chapter in a book. However, the year cited must be the year of publication of the original article: Gu, Q. (2007) Teacher Development: Knowledge and Context. In: Pollard, A. (Ed.) (2014) Readings for Reflective Teaching in Schools. London: Bloomsbury.

3.2 Journal articles

You are encouraged to refer to articles from well-respected peer-reviewed journals, which are considered the highest standard of academic publication. It is the journal title that is the publication, and thus should be in italics, not the article title. The volume and issue numbers should be given (if available), with the issue number in brackets following the volume number. In many cases, you are likely to be using e-journals (online journals), so follow the format for these, combined with other formats as appropriate. 3.2.1 Single author journal article Boas, F. (1920) The methods of ethnology. American Anthropologist 22 : pp.311-321.

3.2.2 Journal article with two authors Wegerif, R. and Mercer, N. (1997) Using computer-based text analysis to integrate quantitative and qualitative methods in the investigation of collaborative learning. Language and Education 11 (4): pp.271-287. Use and, rather than an ampersand (&). 3.2.3 Journal article with three authors Mercer, N., Wegerif, R. and Dawes, L. (1999) Children's talk and the development of reasoning in the classroom. British Educational Research Journal 25 (1): pp.95-113. 3.2.4 Journal article with more than three authors Elbers, E., Maier, R., Hoekstra, T. and Hoogsteder, M. (1992) Internalization and adult- child interaction. Educational Studies 23(2): pp.13-27. 3.2.5 Journal article with no authors Anon. (1999) Round table discussion. The class size debate. Issues in Education 5(2): pp.14-

3.2.6 E-journal article with DOI Wilens, T. E., & Biederman, J. (2006). Alcohol, drugs, and attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: a model for the study of addictions in youth. Journal of Psychopharmacological Studies [online] 20(2): pp.580-588. Available at: http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0269881105058776.x [Accessed 17 June 2008]. Most online journal articles have a Digital Object Identifier (DOI), usually found on the webpage before you access the full text. The DOI is converted into a URL by placing http://dx.doi.org/ in front of it. 3.2.7 E-journal article without DOI Noakes, J. (2000) Enabling young people to express their views on school exclusion. Journal of Education [online] 21(3): pp.124-141. Available at: http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/cgi- bin/fulltext/1154278654401/PDFSTART [Accessed 16 September 2011]. 3.2.8 Multiple works by the same author in the same year These are more likely to be journal articles, so are given in this section. Lower case letters should be added to the date, in the order in which they have been cited in your work. Brockmeier, J. (1996a) Construction and interpretation: exploring a joint perspective on Piaget and Vygotsky. In: Tryphon, A. and Voneche, J. (Eds) Piaget-Vygotsky. Hove: Psychology Press. Brockmeier, J. (1996b) Explaining the interpretive mind. Human Development 3 9: pp.287-294.

3.3 University of Nottingham course materials (including Moodle)

When you reference University of Nottingham teaching materials, whether materials in Moodle, handouts or lecture slides, you should use the author and date format. If the item you are referencing has a named author, use that author’s name in your reference as you would for any other item. If not, use The University of Nottingham as the author. If you want to refer to sources cited in Moodle, or to use quotations that are in Moodle, you must reference these following the conventions for secondary citations/references (see 2.3).

3.4.3 Internet source with author and publisher Wertsch, J. V. (1985) Vygotsky and the social formation of mind. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press [online]. Available at: http://coe.ksu.edu/jecdol/Vol_3/articles/Wang.htm. [Accessed 22 November 2010] Include the date when the site was created or last updated. If no creation/update date can be found, write “(undated)” after the author/organisation and use undated in the in-text citation. Date of access should always be included. 3.4.4 Blog French Mariner (2006) Trying to explain. Borderline Teacher 22 January 2006 [online: weblog]. Available at: http://www.purplepiranha.blogspot.com/ [Accessed 17 January 2009]. 3.4.5 Podcast or music video download Childcare: has it become less affordable? (2007) Women’s Hour (released 5 February 2007) [podcast: radio programme]. London: BBC. Available at: http://www.bbc.co.uk/radio4/womanshour/listen/ [Accessed 8 February 2007]. 3.4.6 YouTube video CoreEducationNZ (2010) Globalised learning [video online]. Available at: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=porLT0xIkR4 [Accessed 25 February 2013]. Here CoreEducationNZ is an example of a contributor's username. 3.4.7 Recorded seminar Blackmore, J. (2016) Designing innovative learning spaces [recorded seminar],12 May. Available at: https://echo360.org.uk/media/b614b19f-869d-4aa1-b227-a8a25cab0cf8/public [Accessed 24 July 2018]. 3.4.8 Newspaper article (online) Jackson, D. (2003) A question of faith. The Guardian. 17 December [online]. Available at: http://www.guardian.co.uk/parents/story/0,3605,1108387,00.html [Accessed 21 January 2004]. If the article is an editorial or no author can be identified, use the title of the newspaper followed by the date for in-text citation and reference list purposes. 3.4.9 Photograph (online) Davidson, C. (2000) Indian classroom [photograph]. Available at http://www.google.co.uk/imgres?imgurl [Accessed 12 February 2005]. If the photograph is from a book, “photograph] should be followed by “In:” followed by the book’s details (see appropriate book format). If viewed in a collection, [photograph] should be followed by “Held at:” and then the details of the collection.

3.5 Other media

3.5.1 Newspaper article (paper) Gent, J. (2001) Exam chaos to come. Times Educational Supplement. 13 February, p.15.

If the newspaper article is an editorial or no author can be identified, use the title of the newspaper followed by the date for in-text citation and reference list purposes. Check whether the article is available online, as this will then be accessible to your readers. 3.5.2 Television or radio (broadcast) The truth about teachers (2001) Panorama (broadcast date 1 March 2001) [television programme]. London: BBC. If you do not need to refer to the broadcast as an event, then check whether the programme is available online or as a podcast, as this will then be accessible to your readers. 3.5.3 Film Running with scissors (2007) Directed by: Ryan Murphy. Los Angeles, USA. [35mm film]. LA: Sony Pictures. 3.5.4 Recorded media (not web-based) Cognitive development (1998) [video: VHS]. Abingdon: Educational Video Ltd. If the media is part of a series, then the series title should go before the date in plain text (see TV or radio broadcast), with the specific title placed after the date in italicised text. If known, the director’s name should follow the date (see films). 3.5.5 CD/DVD-ROM Corbyn, J.C. (2002) In: WebLines: the Internet education resource [CD-ROM]. Utah: University of Utah.

3.6 Conferences

3.6.1 Conference proceedings (paper) International Bakhtin Conference (2006) Proceedings of the XII International Bakhtin Conference, University of Jyvaskyla, Finland, 24-31 July 2005. Department of Languages, University of Jyvaskyla, Finland. The date in brackets is the date of publication. This may be different from the conference date. You should include both. If proceedings are unpublished, the word ‘unpublished’ should replace publishers’ details. 3.6.2 Online conference proceedings or abstracts Carter, S. and Campion, L.M. (2002) Evaluating learning resources for reusability. 20th INVICTA conference proceedings [online]. Available at: http://www.invicta.org.my/conferences/kualalumpur02/proceedings/papers/451pdf [Accessed 12 November 2012]. 3.6.3 Conference paper or abstract McArdle, G. and Monahan, T. (2008) Using virtual reality to learn and socialise online. In: Montgomerie, C. and Seale, J. (Eds.) Proceedings of Ed-Media 2007, 25-29 June 2007, Vancouver BC, Canada. Chesapeake, VA: Association for the Advancement of Computing in Education, p.76. The date in brackets is the date of publication. This may be different from the conference date. You should include both. If proceedings are unpublished, the word ‘unpublished’ should replace publishers’ details.

If possible, and if you have permission, include a copy of the communication as an appendix and reference as shown in the second example: Sharma, N. (2010) Personal communication (appendix 3). If the communication was via email, you can reference it as in this example: Thompson, P. (2010) Re: Web 2.0. Email to T. Westrik, 12 January. Before using an email as a reference, you must first check with the author of the email that they are happy for you to do so. If it is an email sent from a work address, you may also need to check whether it is the property of the organisation, rather than the author.

3.10 Your own previous assignment

You should not recycle previous coursework in an assignment, but you may want to refer to your previous work or quote from it. For example, your current assignment or dissertation may build on work you did for one of your previous modules. If this is the case, then the in-text citation should consist of your name and the date of submission. The reference should be formatted as in this example: Li, Q. (2018) Pupil perspectives on enhancing extra-curricular provision , submitted to The University of Nottingham as assessment for XX4W38 Practice-based inquiry.

3.11 Sources in languages other than English

If English is not your only language, you may want to use sources that are written in another language. This may be because you can read a text in the original, rather than in translation, or because the sources are relevant to your own context and are not available in English. You should reference the exact source used, in the same format that you would use for a source written in English. For example: Bourdieu, P. (1980) Le sens pratique. Paris: Éditions de Minuit. However, the source may be written using another script, for example Japanese as in the following title: PISA で 教育の何が変わった日本の場合 If this is the case, you should transliterate (not translate) the reference into English script. You should include only the transliterated reference, not the original in your references list: Matsushita, K. (2010) PISA de kyōiku no nani ga kawattaka nihon no baai. CRET Symposium Report. Center for Research on Educational Testing, Japan [online]. Available at: https://www.cret.or.jp/files/4c2f15b6b31fa47754e2cd22f1f0559f.pdf [Accessed 25 April 2016]. Most versions of Harvard do not require an English translation of a foreign language title, whether in the original language or transliterated. However, we recommend that you do provide a translation (in square brackets) if it makes the reference more meaningful for those who do not know the original language. Matsushita, K. (2010) PISA de kyōiku no nani ga kawattaka nihon no baai. [What has changed in Japanese education after introducing PISA] CRET Symposium Report. Center for Research on Educational Testing, Japan [online]. Available at: https://www.cret.or.jp/files/4c2f15b6b31fa47754e2cd22f1f0559f.pdf [Accessed 25 April 2016].

4 Acknowledgements and resources for further guidance

The original version of this was adapted from the University of Nottingham Centre of Excellence in Teaching & Learning Reusable Learning Object Referencing your work using Harvard, developed by the School of Nursing and Academic Division of Midwifery (2011): https://www.nottingham.ac.uk/nmp/sonet/rlos/studyskills/harvard/index.html There are several, slightly different, versions of Harvard, so make sure that you follow the format shown in this guide. It is very useful to be able to download a Harvard citation for a source listed in NUSearch or Google Scholar, but you will need to reformat the reference you download, for example putting the date in brackets. You may also need to check and adjust the format slightly when using automated referencing systems, such as Endnote, or web-based referencing sites such as Cite This For Me. There are many Harvard guides available on the internet, produced by different universities. Again, you need to check the finer details of formatting and edit accordingly. We recommend two that are useful: The Referencing guide at the University of Manchester: Harvard Manchester (University of Manchester, 2018) is a good web-based guide. This is almost identical to our version of Harvard, but there are some slight differences in punctuation of references. You can access this here: http://subjects.library.manchester.ac.uk/referencing/referencing-harvard The OU Harvard guide to citing references (Open University, 2014 ) includes a very wide range of types of sources and is available as a downloadable pdf. We have drawn on this in showing how to reference online teaching materials. However, please note that there are differences in punctuation (for example, of publisher details). You can use their examples as a model, but will need to edit slightly to comply with the University of Nottingham version of Harvard. You can download the OU Harvard guide here: http://www.open.ac.uk/libraryservices/documents/Harvard_citation_hlp.pdf