Study with the several resources on Docsity
Earn points by helping other students or get them with a premium plan
Prepare for your exams
Study with the several resources on Docsity
Earn points to download
Earn points by helping other students or get them with a premium plan
Community
Ask the community for help and clear up your study doubts
Discover the best universities in your country according to Docsity users
Free resources
Download our free guides on studying techniques, anxiety management strategies, and thesis advice from Docsity tutors
formatting in another level good for you , get set go
Typology: Essays (university)
1 / 12
This page cannot be seen from the preview
Don't miss anything!
Running on Empty 1
Running on Empty: The Effects of Food Deprivation on Concentration and Perseverance Thomas Delancy and Adam Solberg Dordt College
Place manuscript page headers one-half inch from the top. Put five spaces between the page header and the page number.
Full title, authors, and school name are centered on the page, typed in uppercase and lowercase.
The abstract summarizes the problem, participants, hypotheses, methods used, results, and conclusions.
Sample Abstract
Running on Empty 2
Abstract This study examined the effects of short-term food deprivation on two cognitive abilities—concentration and perseverance. Undergraduate students (N-51) were tested on both a concentration task and a perseverance task after one of three levels of food deprivation: none, 12 hours, or 24 hours. We predicted that food deprivation would impair both concentration scores and perseverance time. Food deprivation had no significant effect on concentration scores, which is consistent with recent research on the effects of food deprivation (Green et al., 1995; Green et al., 1997). However, participants in the 12-hour deprivation group spent significantly less time on the perseverance task than those in both the control and 24-hour deprivation groups, suggesting that short-term deprivation may affect some aspects of cognition and not others.
The relatively sparse research on food deprivation has left room for further research. First, much of the research has focused either on chronic starvation at one end of the continuum or on missing a single meal at the other end (Green et al., 1995). Second, some of the findings have been contradictory. One study found that skipping breakfast impairs certain aspects of cognition, such as problem-solving abilities (Pollitt, Lewis, Garza, & Shulman, 1983). However, other research by M. W. Green, N. A. Elliman, and P. J. Rogers (1995, 1997) has found that food deprivation ranging from missing a single meal to 24 hours without eating does not significantly impair cognition. Third, not all groups of people have been sufficiently studied. Studies have been done on 9–11 year-olds (Pollitt et al., 1983), obese subjects (Crumpton, Wine, & Drenick, 1966), college-age men and women (Green et al., 1995, 1996, 1997), and middle-age males (Kollar et al., 1964). Fourth, not all cognitive aspects have been studied. In 1995 Green, Elliman, and Rogers studied sustained attention, simple reaction time, and immediate memory; in 1996 they studied attentional bias; and in 1997 they studied simple reaction time, two-finger tapping, recognition memory, and free recall. In 1983, another study focused on reaction time and accuracy, intelligence quotient, and problem solving (Pollitt et al.). According to some researchers, most of the results so far indicate that cognitive function is not affected significantly by short-term fasting (Green et al., 1995, p. 246). However, this conclusion seems premature due to the relative lack of research on cognitive functions such as concentration and perseverance. To date, no study has tested perseverance, despite its importance in cognitive functioning. In fact, perseverance may be a better indicator than achievement tests in assessing growth in learning and thinking abilities, as perseverance helps in solving complex problems (Costa, 1984). Another study also recognized that perseverance, better learning techniques, and effort are cognitions worth studying (D’Agostino, 1996). Testing as many aspects of cognition as possible is key because the nature of the task is important when interpreting the link between food deprivation and cognitive performance (Smith & Kendrick, 1992).
Clear transitions guide readers through the researchers’ reasoning.
The researchers explain how their study will add to past research on the topic.
The researchers support their decision to focus on concentration and perseverance.
Therefore, the current study helps us understand how short-term food deprivation affects concentration on and perseverance with a difficult task. Specifically, participants deprived of food for 24 hours were expected to perform worse on a concentration test and a perseverance task than those deprived for 12 hours, who in turn were predicted to perform worse than those who were not deprived of food. Method Participants Participants included 51 undergraduate-student volunteers ( females, 19 males), some of whom received a small amount of extra credit in a college course. The mean college grade point average (GPA) was 3.19. Potential participants were excluded if they were dieting, menstruating, or taking special medication. Those who were struggling with or had struggled with an eating disorder were excluded, as were potential participants addicted to nicotine or caffeine. Materials Concentration speed and accuracy were measured using an online numbers-matching test (www.psychtests.com/tests/iq/concentration.html) that consisted of 26 lines of 25 numbers each. In 6 minutes, participants were required to find pairs of numbers in each line that added up to 10. Scores were calculated as the percentage of correctly identified pairs out of a possible 120. Perseverance was measured with a puzzle that contained five octagons—each of which included a stencil of a specific object (such as an animal or a flower). The octagons were to be placed on top of each other in a specific way to make the silhouette of a rabbit. However, three of the shapes were slightly altered so that the task was impossible. Perseverance scores were calculated as the number of minutes that a participant spent on the puzzle task before giving up. Procedure At an initial meeting, participants gave informed consent. Each consent form contained an assigned identification number and requested the participant’s GPA. Students were then informed that they would be notified by e-mail and telephone about their assignment to one of the
The researchers state their initial hypotheses.
Headings and subheadings show the paper’s organization.
The experiment’s method is described, using the terms and acronyms of the discipline.
Passive voice is used to emphasize the experiment, not the researchers; otherwise, active voice is used.
Results Perseverance data from one control-group participant were eliminated because she had to leave the session early. Concentration data from another control-group participant were dropped because he did not complete the test correctly. Three manipulation-check questions indicated that each participant correctly perceived his or her deprivation condition and had followed the rules for it. The average concentration score was 77.78 (SD = 14.21), which was very good considering that anything over 50 percent is labeled “good” or “above average.” The average time spent on the puzzle was 24.00 minutes (SD = 10.16), with a maximum of 40 minutes allowed. We predicted that participants in the 24-hour deprivation group would perform worse on the concentration test and the perseverance task than those in the 12-hour group, who in turn would perform worse than those in the control group. A one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) showed no significant effect of deprivation condition on concentration, F(2,46) = 1.06, p = .36 (see Figure 1). Another one-way ANOVA indicated
Figure 1.
No deprivation 12-hour deprivation 24-hour deprivation Deprivation Condition
100
90
80
70
60
50
Mean score on concentration test
The writers summarize their findings, including problems encountered.
“See Figure 1” sends readers to a figure (graph, photograph, chart, or drawing) contained in the paper.
All figures and illustrations (other than tables) are numbered in the order that they are first mentioned in the text.
a significant effect of deprivation condition on perseverance time, F(2,47) = 7.41, p < .05. Post-hoc Tukey tests indicated that the 12-hour deprivation group (M = 17.79, SD = 7.84) spent significantly less time on the perseverance task than either the control group (M = 26.80, SD = 6.20) or the 24-hour group (M = 28.75, SD = 12.11), with no significant difference between the latter two groups (see Figure 2). No significant effect was found for gender either generally or with specific deprivation conditions, Fs < 1.00. Unexpectedly, food deprivation had no significant effect on concentration scores. Overall, we found support for our hypothesis that 12 hours of food deprivation would significantly impair perseverance when compared to no deprivation. Unexpectedly, 24 hours of food deprivation did not significantly affect perseverance relative to the control group. Also unexpectedly, food deprivation did not significantly affect concentration scores.
Discussion The purpose of this study was to test how different levels of food deprivation affect concentration on and perseverance with difficult tasks.
30 28 26 24 22 20 18 16 14 12 10 8 6 4 2 0
Mean score on perseverance test
Figure 2.
No deprivation 12-hour deprivation 24-hour deprivation Deprivation Condition
The researchers restate their hypotheses and the results, and go on to interpret those results.
after the testing. In addition, the time of day when the respective groups took the tests may have influenced the results: those in the 24-hour group took the tests in the morning and may have been fresher and more relaxed than those in the 12-hour group, who took the tests at night. Perhaps, then, the motivation level of food-deprived participants could be effectively tested. Second, longer-term food deprivation periods, such as those experienced by people fasting for religious reasons, could be explored. It is possible that cognitive function fluctuates over the duration of deprivation. Studies could ask how long a person can remain focused despite a lack of nutrition. Third, and perhaps most fascinating, studies could explore how food deprivation affects learned industriousness. As stated above, one possible explanation for the better perseverance times in the 24-hour group could be that they spontaneously improved their perseverance faculties by simply forcing themselves not to eat for 24 hours. Therefore, research could study how food deprivation affects the acquisition of perseverance. In conclusion, the results of this study provide some fascinating insights into the cognitive and physiological effects of skipping meals. Contrary to what we predicted, a person may indeed be very capable of concentrating after not eating for many hours. On the other hand, if one is taking a long test or working long hours at a tedious task that requires perseverance, one may be hindered by not eating for a short time, as shown by the 12-hour group’s performance on the perseverance task. Many people—students, working mothers, and those interested in fasting, to mention a few—have to deal with short-term food deprivation, intentional or unintentional. This research and other research to follow will contribute to knowledge of the disadvantages—and possible advantages—of skipping meals. The mixed results of this study suggest that we have much more to learn about short-term food deprivation.
The conclusion summarizes the outcomes, stresses the experiment’s value, and anticipates further advances on the topic.
References Costa, A. L. (1984). Thinking: How do we know students are getting better at it? Roeper Review, 6, 197–199. Crumpton, E., Wine, D. B., & Drenick, E. J. (1966). Starvation: Stress or satisfaction? Journal of the American Medical Association, 196, 394–396. D’Agostino, C. A. F. (1996). Testing a social-cognitive model of achievement motivation.- Dissertation Abstracts International Section A: Humanities & Social Sciences, 57, 1985. Eisenberger, R., & Leonard, J. M. (1980). Effects of conceptual task difficulty on generalized persistence. American Journal of Psychology, 93, 285–298. Green, M. W., Elliman, N. A., & Rogers, P. J. (1995). Lack of effect of short-term fasting on cognitive function. Journal of Psychiatric Research, 29, 245–253. Green, M. W., Elliman, N. A., & Rogers, P. J. (1996). Hunger, caloric preloading, and the selective processing of food and body shape words. British Journal of Clinical Psychology, 35, 143–151. Green, M. W., Elliman, N. A., & Rogers, P. J. (1997). The study effects of food deprivation and incentive motivation on blood glucose levels and cognitive function. Psychopharmacology, 134, 88–94. Hickman, K. L., Stromme, C., & Lippman, L. G. (1998). Learned industriousness: Replication in principle. Journal of General Psychology, 125, 213–217. Keys, A., Brozek, J., Henschel, A., Mickelsen, O., & Taylor, H. L. (1950). The biology of human starvation (Vol. 2). Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press. Kollar, E. J., Slater, G. R., Palmer, J. O., Docter, R. F., & Mandell, A. J. (1964). Measurement of stress in fasting man. Archives of General Psychology, 11, 113–125. Pinel, J. P. (2000). Biopsychology (4th ed.). Boston: Allyn and Bacon.
All works referred to in the paper appear on the reference page, listed alphabetically by author (or title).
Each entry follows APA guidelines for listing authors, dates, titles, and publishing information.
Capitalization, punctuation, and hanging indentation are consistent with APA format.
