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Research Methods Final Exam
"Mnemonics - CORRECT ANSWER -is a system of memorizing. it is used in field research when note taking is impossible or unwise -a technique once used by preliterate societies to orally pass down its traditions -process allows the researcher to later reconstruct in exact details what transpired -Dictaphones (sound recording machines that reproduce dictation) can also be a great device to use so that info can be later transcribed (this can help researchers to better manage data)" "other recording methods - CORRECT ANSWER -photographs when allowed can serve as second type of field note
- be aware of the use of tape recorders, videotapes, films, and other mechanical devices. these can help with recall -subjects will not allow the researcher to use such devices in every research investigation" "visual criminology - CORRECT ANSWER -the use of photographs in field studies/ ethnographies is not anything new -long tradition in anthropology and sociology -it is under explored in criminology and is rape for ethnographic investigations -can be used for data collection, analysis, and theory building
- can be used to document aspects of the lives of those involved in either deviance or caught in the cjs -can also be as a pedagogical tool
- Reflexive photography involves giving respondents cameras and asking them to take pics that are explored in subsequent interviews -Photo Novella: (picture stories) a form of photo interviewing that allows for discussions of needs and problems illustrated by pictures -Cecil Greek describes visual criminology as using photographs as an ethnographic tool in cj settings -photography is also used for news media and for collecting evidence to be used in forensic and legal matters" "tips on participant observation - CORRECT ANSWER -when it comes to studying criminals in their natural environment Polsky suggest: -one should remember that the subjects is in greater danger as a result of being studied in the field than is someone in jail -the researcher is more of an intruder and the subjects are free to not participate -in studying criminals in their natural environment: researchers should avoid taking notes on the spot and using questionnaires or tape recorders
- in beginning researcher should just observe and listen not asking too many questions
- researchers middleclass language and probing may become irritating to subjects -William foote white: one has to learn when to question and when not to question as well as what questions to ask"
"Gaining Access (must have entry) - CORRECT ANSWER -before becoming an insider, learn the language of the group under investigation. Avoid overusing it and trying too hard to be an insider -experts argue that the initial intro to criminals in the field may be gained by frequenting their haunts (places where people frequently hangout) or sharing either common recreational interest
- Howard Becker suggest that cabdrivers, reporters, bartenders and the police officers are good sources of info -if ones status (race and ethnicity) provides access to deviant groups, take advantage
- Richard Tewksbury and colleagues suggest following to gain entry: knowledgeable insider, potential participant, marginal member, emphatic outsider, knowledgeable outsider working with a knowledgeable insider" "arranging interview - CORRECT ANSWER - not arrive before 10 no later than 8 -present proper identification such as prominently displayed name tag with officials
- on arrival be sure to locate person being interviewed -inform respondents about letter sent or call made earlier regarding interview
- if unsuccessful in schedule meetings do not keep calling" "probing - CORRECT ANSWER - when respondent does not provide enough info in answer, probing is needed
- involves asking follow-up questions to: focus, expand, clarify, or further explain response given
- interviewer should be familiar with responses needed for each question to know when a probe is necessary -probe should not appear to be a cross-examination, but should be a natural extension of the interview -silence is golden, the interviewers silence should indicate to the respondent that he or she is not going to accept that response" "Bergs 10 commandments of interviewing - CORRECT ANSWER - never start interview cold
- stay on track
- present natural front, be relaxed and natural
- demonstrate ability to hear, be good listener and provide nonverbal responses
- Appearance
- Conduct interview in comfortable place
- be respectful, assure respondents valued interest
- be pleasant and appreciative" "Vignettes and Scenarios - CORRECT ANSWER - "short stories" about hypothetical characteristics in specified circumstances to whose situations the interview if invited to respond
- short stories about individual, situation and structure
"computer in survey research - CORRECT ANSWER - 1st wave of computer usage in SS
- involved data management and statistical analysis -2nd wave more advanced
- computer assistance program interviewing (CAPI)
- uses laptop computer instead of clipboard -longitudinal projects, respondents, can be provided and inexpensive computer -some believe computerized interviews better than standard be (1) eliminate interview biases, (2) obtain more standardize responses (3) assure anonymity, (4) and reduce coding error -focus group research is suitable for Continuous Audience Response Technology (CART) -during this process groups are brought together to measure a stimuli" "SPSS (Statistical Package for the Social Sciences) - CORRECT ANSWER -possibly most widely used computer software for analysis or quanitative data for social scientist
- descriptive stats are technique used to summarize large amounts of numerical data, typically use graphs frequency distribution and tables
- inferential stats allow us to make inference about entire pop even though we don't have sample to it -provides software for analyzing survey responses -allows one to analyze, interpret, present and organize data" "random digit dialing - CORRECT ANSWER - people who don't own or who are not contactable by telephone cannot be interviewed by phone
- since characteristics most likely feature among poor households potential for sampling bias exists
- possible solution random digit dialing: computer can be used to randomly select telephone numbers with a predefined geographical area -this procedure conforms to the rules of probability sampling, as well as stands a chance of getting at ex-directory households, but cannot access people without a telephone" "victim survey in CJ - CORRECT ANSWER -"dark figures" of crime have escaped official stats involve asking questions to representative sample to pop to obtain instantiation of vict a portion of which is not reported to police -BJS created by congress to coordinate local, state, and federal agencies -in late 1960s victim survey were conducted on a large scale basis to measure crime (as a result a major victim survey was stated in the US and in other countries) -most ambitious effort to collect these data came from the US with the help of the department of justices bureau of statistics which utilizes the US census Bureau as the data gathering agent
- Other pilot surveys conducted by LEAA in the early 70s helped to identify major methodological issues to be addressed in later, larger BJS surveys
-some of these issues included: recall periods, reverse validity checks, problems of under and over reporting, creditability of respondents and sampling questions" "National Crime Victimization Survey (NCVS) - CORRECT ANSWER -originally called national crime survey, initiated 1972 -comprised national crime panel surveys and central city survey -national crime panel studies are conducted and referred to as NCVS -survey design, sampling and estimating schemas are among most complex in social sciences" "sampling - CORRECT ANSWER -NCVS consists of national surveys of housing units -data obtained from nationally representative sample of 72,200 households or nearly 134,000 people
- sample is subdivided and interviewed -each housing unit remains in sample for 3 years -samples designed so every 6 months one group rotated out and replaced with new one
- rotation enables the crime panel to remain fresh and representative over time -the first and fifth interviews are conducted in person, while the others are by telephone" "Computer Assisted Telephone Interviews (CATI) - CORRECT ANSWER - the efficiency of telephone interviewing has been enhanced with the widespread use of computer assisted interviews
- allows for easy supervision, tape recorded interviews, reduces the prospect of respondents answers being influenced by the personal characteristics of the interviewer -computer flashes on the monitor the question to be asked the interviewer keys in the answer, and program chooses the next question to be asked" "techniques employed in Telephone surveys - CORRECT ANSWER - sensitive items such as income can be handled by a line of questioning employing branching procedure in which income is narrowed down to broad estimates
- likelihood of refusal is greater during the first minutes of the telephone conversation -interviewer should avoid screening respondents with threatening or sensitive questions or questions that easily permit the subject to refuse -ex) is there anyone there who earns under $20,000 a year?" -even questions requiring scaled responses rather than simply "yes" or "no" can be answered over the telephone" "NCVS is conducted using a complex stratified multistage cluster sample - CORRECT ANSWER -The sampling Frame: -a national sampling frame is developed in which about 2,000 primary sampling units are defined as either a Standard Metropolitan Statistical Area, a country, or small group of countries
- these clusters are then stratified on the basis of size, density, pop mobility, and other important socioeconomic criteria into 376 strata -one primary sampling unit is chosen from each strata with a proportionate probability with respect to pop size
-inaccurate info could be a mistake (some people may actually believe they were the victims of crime) -people lack the legal definition of what constitutes criminal actions and may report incidents that are not really crimes. -ex) a return home to find opened door or window, misplaced or lost items" "poor memory - CORRECT ANSWER -poor memory is referred to as the progressive memory loss so the distance increases between the time of the event and the time of the interview concerning the event" "telescoping - CORRECT ANSWER -tendency of respondents to move forward and report as having occurred events that actually occurred before the reference/benchmark period -about 20% of the victimizations in police records were reported as having occurred before the reference period. However the victimization survey sample revealed that they had occurred within reference period (some subjects engage in this process to satisfy interviewers" "sampling bias - CORRECT ANSWER -could be either deliberate or accidental exclusions or additions of certain people or demographics" "over reporting and under reporting - CORRECT ANSWER -over reporting occurs because respondents tend to report acts that they ordinarily regard as being trivial or unimportant to warrant police attention or intervention -underreporting occurs because victim do not report crimes committed by a friend, relative, or family member -also a lack of reports on crime committed by criminal elites and others -most victims surveys do not include nonresidents and foreign visitors, especially found in inner-city urban areas with huge commuter pops (LA, NY, and Washington)" "Interviewers Effect - CORRECT ANSWER - potential for interviewer bias exist in survey research -typically caused by subjective bias motivated by the researchers self-interest -potential reactivity of respondents who are continually interviewed as part of their attitudes or reported victimizations" "Coding Unreliability and Mechanical Error - CORRECT ANSWER - people make mistakes in coding data, data entry, and analyzing data -these could account for inaccuracies: scholars point out that unchecked mechanical errors abound in coding and data entry, especially large scale surveys" "Problems Measuring Certain types of Crime - CORRECT ANSWER -NCVS does not interview victims of murder, however, there are problems measuring specific crimes -in past, rape was one such crime since respondents were never directly asked if they had been raped
-Eigenburg argued in 1990, that rape had been poorly operationalized by the NCVS. Nevertheless than the rate collected by the UCR -this is because of improved operationalization of rape and domestic violence, especially since NCVS has been redesigned -Unlike in the past, today, the instrument asks in the respondent has been raped" "benefits of victim survey - CORRECT ANSWER -despite the problems associated with victims surveys, they hold tremendous promise: -they have become a model that others countries are now using to collect crime data
- they allow for an opportunity to obtain a picture of victims and their characteristics -They may give a more accurate estimates for crimes such as rape, assaults, and intimate personal violence (due to non-reporting)
- the potential exists (telephone surveys) for jurisdiction to conduct their own victim surveys to gauge, plan, and evaluate elements of police services -they also useful for measuring the costs associated with crime, especially with respect to injuries, insurance, and crime prevention programs" "In defense of Victim surveys - CORRECT ANSWER -surveys like other forms of data collection suffer various shortcomings -comparatively, victim surveys are a relatively toung technique in cjr -researchers still have much to learn about surveys in their future methodological analyses -BJS is constantly monitoring and attempting to update the methodological accuracy of the NVCS -in 1985, a group of experts in criminology the national crime consortium was charged with devising better screening questions to obtain better control over forgotten as well as sensitive questions" "redesigning the NCVS reflected effort such as - CORRECT ANSWER - controlling for mistakes in victim surveys that may include the following: -use of panels -bounding of target groups -evaluation of coding -reverse record check surveys of known groups -Reinterviews of the same groups -interview with significant others" "bounding - CORRECT ANSWER -the use of NCVS allow the researcher to achieve bounding -1st interview with resident result in a panel that can be followed up 5 times every 6 months before being dropped out of the sample -at each 6 month interview, respondents are asked about events since the last interview (used to measure whether the person has experienced more or less victimization) -bounding is made possible beginning with the interview during which the boundary or time period during which events were recalled as having taken place can be established
-special questions will be periodically added to deal with timely issues such as school violence, school shootings, stalking, bullying, victim risk, identity theft, and others -efforts were made in redesigning the NCVS to avoid disrupting the integrity of it longitudinal design -new survey instrument was phased the NCVS so as not to compromise trend data" "William Foote White- Street Corner Society - CORRECT ANSWER " the participant of the researcher in the activities of people being studied will be shaped in part by the degrees of differences in cultural backgrounds, race, or ethnic identification between the field worker and the study subjects -" first days or weeks in the field generally yield little data of lasting value. Takes time to fit into the scene adjust to people gain acceptance, and begin to understand what is going on"" "participant observation - CORRECT ANSWER - refers to a variety of strategies in which the researcher studies a group in its natural setting by observing its activities and to varying degrees, participating in its activities -represents a commitments to more inductive or sensitizing strategy
- Dean Champion (1993) argues that if properly conducted, observation is characterized by the following: -1. observations capture the natural social context where persons behavior occurs -2. observation grasp significant events or occurrences that might influence the social interaction of participants -3. observations determine what makes up reality from the world views, the outlooks and philosophies of those being observed -4. observations identify regularities and recurrences in social life by comparing and contrasting data obtained in one study with those obtained in studies of other natural settings" "major purposes of observations - CORRECT ANSWER -1. to capture human conduct as it actually happens, to permit us to view the processual features of behavior -2. to provide more graphic descriptions of social life than can be acquired in other ways -3. to learn in an exploratory scene, those things that should receive more attention by researchers" "The Chicago School of Sociology in 1920s - CORRECT ANSWER - scholars at the University of Chicago fully engaged in participant observation and case study methods to investigate the abundance of social problems, including crime that was common to Chicago in the 20s, 30s, and 40s -the city was influenced by rapid industrialization, mass immigration, migration, prohibition, the greater depression, and the effects of ww
- some experts feels that as research funds continue to decline, researchers will return to this form of data collection -while cjr typically focuses on the public, victims, criminals justice functionaries, field research as a technique is viewed as a neglected and underused technique"
"Types of participant observation - CORRECT ANSWER - (1) complete participation; (2) participant as observer; (3) observer as participant; and (4) complete observation" "complete participation - CORRECT ANSWER -complete participation occurs when the researcher not only join in, but begins to manipulate the direction of group activity -this strategy is rare and is believed to violate the researchers actual role in the process -experts argue that this strategy also has the impact of the researcher influencing the behavior of the subjects, rather than, the subjects acting in a natural manner" "participant as observer - CORRECT ANSWER - type that most people identify as the role of the researcher
- this strategy requires that the researcher makes his/her presence known and tries to objectively observe the activities of the group (without influencing it)" "observer as participant - CORRECT ANSWER - one-visit interview typically with a victim or criminal
- unfortunately sometimes the interviews are unaware that they are short-term participant observers where they used in-depth interviews of 30 primarily white, middle class "Johns" and were unable to find support for the "pathology-ridden depictions of the clients of prostitutes"" "complete observation - CORRECT ANSWER -include experimental and unobtrusive measures. research of Stein (1974) is instructive in this regard -He used one way mirrors to secretly observe and record hundreds of sessions between prostitutes and their clients" "characteristics of participant observation - CORRECT ANSWER -participant observation places high demands on time and personal costs -cost refers not to money but instead to personal involvement -the researcher must commit to studying a group for an extended period of time (ranging from several weeks, months and maybe years) -observer hopes to understand the frame of reference of the group they are studying (must join group in their normal activities to experience things as they do) -could cause the researcher to become a different person" "observer must attempt to operate mentally on 2 levels - CORRECT ANSWER -1: becoming an insider -2: remaining an outsider -observer must report everything and cannot take things for granted as being normal -observer must be able to report patterns of behavior and interrelationships objectively and without moral bias -role of the "outsider" can be very valuable when subjects share important info -sometimes informants may be more willing to open-up to neutral and reliable outsiders"
-these rang from in depth lengthy interviews of one or a few subject to fairly structured surveys of large groups -after weighing advantages and disadvantages researchers should carefully considered other technique collect data" "structured interviews (closed-interview schedules) - CORRECT ANSWER - consist of check off list, questions are factual to which responses fit expectable pattern
- researchers should not solicit additional comments however if occurs should record them verbatim -biggest disadvantage of closed ended question is they generally elicit only limited response patterns -biggest advantage: easy to administer and process (code)" "unstructured interviews (open-ended) - CORRECT ANSWER -referred to as focused, clinical, nondirective -provide open-ended responses, no predetermined response categories are provided
- questions are posed and respondents must provide answer
- open-ended items may present coding nightmare, but provide qualitative detail and complexity of response that may be required in studying of less known subjects" "depth interviews - CORRECT ANSWER -more intensive and detailed, fewer subjects than is case in standard survey and particularly useful life histories or case studies methods
- researcher has list of topics to be explored but exercises great discretion and flexibility in manner, timing, and direction of question -excellent for hypothesis generating or explanatory research -some classic example of this technique were used in many case studies and oral histories such as The Professional Thief and Other Peoples Money" "advantages of interviews - CORRECT ANSWER - face-to-face contact which typically results in higher response rate
- provide opportunity to clear up confusion about questions/ items -make personal observations of respondents that may prove helpful later
- allow researchers to read to those who may be either semiliterate or illiterate -provide interviewer to make use of cards, charts, and audiovisual aids
- can make return visit if necessary and use language understandable -determine who is actually responding to question and judge when to ask questions -interviews can also be used to acquire a womens experience that often include standard surveys" "disadvantage of interviews - CORRECT ANSWER - may be time consuming and costly
- can be offset in part by using cluster sampling to cover widely dispersed households/respondents -interviewer prone to make mistakes in asking question or recording info
-to address user, experts suggest interviewers receive training, supervision and monitoring before collecting data to obtain representative responses -interviewing becomes more challenging when attempting to obtain data from hard to reach pop -Interview may be problematic for respondents if factual date must be locked up are requested -sometimes less convenient and do not afford respondents anonymity compared with mail surveys -Chief problem is quality, integrity, and skill of interviewers" "Interviewing Aids and Variations - CORRECT ANSWER - tend greater versatility and accuracy to this method of collecting data -videotapes have been used in small # of important interviews, ASC and ACJS interview famous CJ -recorded by means of tape recorders, Allows greater accuracy and not having to take notes spot on
- pictorials, photos, and motion pictures have been successfully used to enhance interviewer process
- respondents can be handed a card that contains income range and specific to general range -pictures can be used to "break the ice" and facilitate discussions" "Randomized Response Technique (RRT) - CORRECT ANSWER -Randomized response is a research method used in structure survey interviews to address resistance to sensitive questions
- allows respondents to respond to sensitive issues while maintaining confidentiality -method requires that chance decides unknown to the interviewer, whether question is to be answered truthfully or "yes" regardless of truth
- ex) ask people if use drugs, cheat on spouse, cheat on taxes -Before abortions legal, SS used method to ask if women had abortion" "general procedures in Interviews - CORRECT ANSWER -typically receive guidelines that often come from either research organization or individual researchers and is sound advise regarding individual projects designed to standardize collecting large data" "training and operation session - CORRECT ANSWER -should be properly trained in workshop on complexity of study, be familiar with organizations and purpose of investigation -provide details to feel they are important part of study and be prepared to answer questions -also be asked to sign confidentiality agreement promising not to disclose any info about study or participants
- should mail letter or phone call potential subjects/participant before interviewing"
-2. data gathering by direct observation (from others)
- interviews corroborated by other documents
- data corroborated by using several (or multiple) informants
- when this occurs, rank informants based on their reliability (low to high priority)
- In the book, The Fence: in the shadow of two worlds: steffenmeier used the following for validity checks: use a 2nd, 3rd, and 4th interview to measure the same thing, some interviews were tape recorded" "Advantages of participant observation - CORRECT ANSWER -excellent tool for gathering qualitative data on subjects that little is known about (kkk, gangs, etc) -method produces less prejudgments
- method is less disturbing to respondents than experiments -more flexible and natural as a data gathering technique -after being in the field for a while, contradictions between attitudes and behavior become apparent" "disadvantages of participant observation - CORRECT ANSWER - problem of gaining entry into and being accepted by a group is problematic
- method is time consuming and could affect the researchers personal and professional life -the observer is often not in a position to control the actions of others and consequently, he/she will have to wait for something/ anything to occur (could also be a boring process)" "Ethical dilemmas often emerge while in the field - CORRECT ANSWER - researcher must decide what to do
- deception is often necessary to collect these data -researchers must control their biases which could influence how they observe, record, and interpret -field research produces non-quantitative which requires literary and analytical skills at the write up stage of the process
- no way to repeat or replicate field experience -physical environments often change
- use of pseudonyms (of subjects who actually participated in the study) -people may eventually leave the scene/lifestyle" "Case Studies - CORRECT ANSWER - relatively through examination of specific social settings or particular aspects of social settings, including detailed psychological and behavioral descriptions of persons in those settings -in depth, qualitative studies of one or a few illustrative cases
- nearly every aspect of the subjects life is examined for patterns and causes of behavior -can be exploratory, descriptive or explanatory
- provide a micro-criminological or in depth close up of one or only a few cases -also be a study of a crime commission"
"Advantages of Case studies - CORRECT ANSWER - flexible since they allow researchers to use several data gathering techniques -case studies may be conducted in almost any type of social environment -may be inexpensive, depending on the extent of inquiry involved and the type of data collection technique used" "disadvantages of the case study method - CORRECT ANSWER -because they are time consuming they are not conducted with the same broad magnitude as surveys
- have limited generalizability
- researchers bias and the type of case selected for analysis" "Life history/oral history - CORRECT ANSWER - these techniques are typically used in case study methods -Kraska defines life history as a life history or a biographical interview that is a special type of field interviewing -journalist use the term autobiography and others such as historians and social scientists may refer to them as documentary expression or oral history -the process may include videotaping prominent criminologist and criminal justicians
- researchers interview and gathers documentary material about someone's life, usually someone who is older -the researcher ask open-ended questions to capture how the person understands his/her own past -main person is to get at how the respondents see/remembers the past not just some kind of objective truth -a grid can even be used in the process which may consist of occupation, education, family events, or 10 different ages of the person -it can be considered a subtype of oral history" "unobtrusive methods - CORRECT ANSWER - any friend of data collection that directly removes the research from the set of interations, events, or behavior being investigated
- subjects lack of awareness of being studied eliminates reactivity or stooge effects -nonreactive methods of gathering data
- methods used whereby subjects are not aware that they are being studied
- subjects are not aware of being analysed they do not react in an artifical or atypical manner
- have a variety of official statistics and records available for the purpose of research -Best is the UCR -some argue best sources are offical agency records (data allow for a record of events that transpired and can be used to reconstruct those events)" "Types of unobtrusive methods - CORRECT ANSWER -physical trace analysis
- archival, existing data, and autobiographies
- simple observation
- disguised observation
- simulation"
"disguised observation - CORRECT ANSWER - involves any type of research in which the researcher hides his/her presence or purpose for interacting with a group -one problem is potentially long waiting period for results or expected behavior to occur -use of confederate: person planned to facilitate that which is to be observed" "simulations - CORRECT ANSWER - situation or game that attempts to mimic or imitate, key features of reality, can be either human or computer
- may range from simple relatively nonserious play activities or games to highly complex computer simulations of world economy or international diplomacy -should include debriefing of subjects to reassure them and explain full purpose of study -involve computer models that analyze and imitate activity through mathematical models
- have become a useful part of many natura systems such as human systems in economics, psychology and other social sciences to gain insight into the operation of those" "Advantages of Unobtrusive Measures - CORRECT ANSWER - nonreactivity: helps to avoid the overreliance on attitudinal data or verbal description given by respondents about their behavior -audio and visual aids can enhance the data gathering process -recording the equpiment can provide a permanent record for reanalysis -physical evidence is inconspicuous and offers anonymity -archival records enable the study of phenomena over time -observational studies have the advantages of gaining info fisthand and taking into account the context of the behavior -researchers can conduct large scale and event international analyses quickly and inexpensively" "purpose of unobtrusive measures - CORRECT ANSWER - avoid the contamination that might arise when investigators and research participants confront one another in data gathering situations" "secondary data - CORRECT ANSWER -sources already exist but may be new to subsequent researchers -involves the reanalysis of data that were origianlly collected for other purposed and even funded by governmental agencies in some cases
- why use: gathering original data can be time-consuming, expensive and require rescources, this method saves time money and other valuable -allows one to investigate large data sets that a single researcher may not be able to collect on his/her own" "What can we learn from police reports - CORRECT ANSWER - who officers stop with repsect to race/ehtnicity, socioeconomic status and gender
- why a stop was made
- what actions were taken after the stop"
"What can we learn from court reports - CORRECT ANSWER - who appeared before the court and why
- How was the matter settled or disposed" "What can we learn from correctional officers incident reports? - CORRECT ANSWER - did an inmate engage in rule infractions
- how was the matter resoled -was an inmate physically abused by corrections officers
- Lee correctional Institute in Bishopville SC
- 7 inmates killed and 17 other inmates seriously wounded" "archival records - CORRECT ANSWER - data are collected from diverse sources such as actuarial records, political and judicial records, government docs, the mass media and private records such as autobiographies, diaries and letters
- scholars have made increasing use of archival research as there has been a growing appreciation for historical records -can be used for cross cultural and historical comparisons" "historical data - CORRECT ANSWER - neglected area of cjr
- allows one to examine the past in attempt to objectively chronicle and explain these events
- some examples of research that have relied on historical data inculde" "making observations - CORRECT ANSWER - observations can be used to measure characterisitics of individuals, events, and places. observations may be primary form of measurement in a study or they may supplement measures obtained through questioning" "simple observations - CORRECT ANSWER - occurs in situations in which the observer has no control over the behavior or sign in question and plays an unobserved, passive, and unobtrusive role in the situation
- their peculiarity derives from the fact that the researcher does not intervene in the production of the material -4 basic types of simple observation: (1): observation of exterior body and physical signs (2): analysis of expressive movement (3): physical location and (4): observation of language behavior" "observation of exterior body and physial signs of behavior or attitudes - CORRECT ANSWER -signs of tattoos -clothing styles -ornamental objects (jewelry and other possessions)" "Analysis of expressive movement - CORRECT ANSWER -speech -grimaces -gestures"
