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Delineation of groundwater potential zones and
zones of groundwater quality suitable for domestic
purposes using remote sensing and GIS
Y. SRINIVASA RAO a^ & D. K. JUGRAN b a (^) Department of Geology, Sri Venkateswara University, Tirupati, 517 502, Andhra Pradesh, India E-mail: b (^) Geoscience Division, Indian Institute of Remote Sensing, 4 Kalidas Road, Dehradun, 248 001, Uttaranchal State, India Published online: 19 Jan 2010.
To cite this article: Y. SRINIVASA RAO & D. K. JUGRAN (2003) Delineation of groundwater potential zones and zones of groundwater quality suitable for domestic purposes using remote sensing and GIS, Hydrological Sciences Journal, 48:5, 821-833, DOI: 10.1623/hysj.48.5.821.
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Hydrological Sciences–Journal–des Sciences Hydrologiques , 48 (5) October 2003
Open for discussion until 1 April 2004
821
Delineation of groundwater potential zones and
zones of groundwater quality suitable for domestic
purposes using remote sensing and GIS
Y. SRINIVASA RAO
Department of Geology, Sri Venkateswara University, Tirupati 517 502, Andhra Pradesh, India ysrao88@yahoo.com
D. K. JUGRAN Geoscience Division, Indian Institute of Remote Sensing, 4 Kalidas Road, Dehradun 248 001, Uttaranchal State, India
Abstract The exploration for groundwater in hard rock terrains is a complex task. To overcome this complexity, the integrated approach based on advanced applications of remote sensing and geographical information systems (GIS) lends itself as an efficient and effective result-oriented method for studying the development and management of water resources. Chittoor area, comprised of a hard rock terrain, is located in the drought-prone Rayalaseema region of Andhra Pradesh, India. Using remote sensing and GIS technology, groundwater potential zones, along with zones of water quality suitable for domestic purposes, were delineated and classified. Results indicated that, for the town of Chittoor, 1.64% of the area was classified to have very high groundwater poten- tial, with groundwater quality suitable or moderately suitable for domestic purposes; and 31.68% of the area was classified as high potential, with over 31% being suitable or moderately suitable. Most (62.05%) of the area is of moderate groundwater potential, with groundwater quality mostly suitable or moderately suitable for domestic purposes. Key words groundwater potential zones; groundwater quality; remote sensing; GIS; Andhra Pradesh, India Délimitation par télédétection et SIG de zones où l’eau souterraine est exploitable à des fins d’alimentation domestique Résumé La recherche d’eaux souterraines dans des sites à roches dures est une tâche complexe. Face à cette complexité, l’approche intégrée basée sur des applications avancées de télédétection et de système d’information géographique (SIG) permet de proposer une méthode efficace et efficiente pour étudier le développement et la gestion des ressources en eau. La zone de Chittoor, présentant un substrat de roches dures, se situe dans la région sensible aux sécheresses de Rayalaseema en Andhra Pradesh, en Inde. Les zones de potentiel en eaux souterraines ainsi que les zones où la qualité d’eau est compatible avec les usages domestiques ont été délimitées et classifiées en utilisant la télédétection et la technologie SIG. Les résultats indiquent que, pour la ville de Chittoor, un peu moins de 2% de la zone ont été classifiés avec un très fort potentiel en eaux souterraines, bien que moins de 1% seulement soit valable ou presque valable pour les usages domestiques; et que 31.68% de la zone aient été classifiés avec un fort potentiel, avec plus de 31% valables ou presque valables. La plupart (62.05%) de la zone présente un potentiel en eaux souterraines modéré, avec une qualité d’eau essentiellement valable et modérément valable pour les usages domestiques. Mots clefs zones de potentiel en eaux souterraines; qualité d’eaux souterraines; télédétection; SIG; Andhra Pradesh, Inde
INTRODUCTION
Increasing population and modern industrial and agricultural activities are not only creating more demand for groundwater resources due to the inadequate availability of surface water resources, but are also polluting groundwater resources by releasing
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Fig. 1 Location map of Chittoor area, Chittoor district, Andhra Pradesh, India.
tank distance, and groundwater quality maps of Total Dissolved Solids (TDS), Total Hardness (TH), incrustation problem, and magnesium concentration were prepared and classified for spatial analysis. Lineament distance, drainage distance, and tank distance maps were prepared by considering the well yield vs distance from lineament, drainage channel and tank, respectively (i.e. as the distance from lineament/drainage channel/ tank increases the well yield decreases). Different classes in each thematic map were assigned a knowledge-based hierarchy of weights. For groundwater potential, these weights ranged from 1 to 7. For groundwater quality and suitability of use, the weights ranged from 1 to 4, according to World Health Organization (WHO) and Indian Standards Institution (ISI) guidelines. In each thematic map, highest weight is given to the class that is most favourable, either to potential, or to quality and suitability of use, and lowest weight is given to the class
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Fig. 2 Flow chart of methodology used in the study.
Classification of groundwater potential zones
Classification of groundwater quality suitable for domestic purposes
(c) Fieldwork & groundwater sample collection Well inventory; well yield data; water table levels
Contour map Drainage map
Slope percent Drainage distance map Tank distance map
Geology & lineament hydromorphogeology map
Lineament distance map
Weathered zone thickness map Iso-yield map Water table contour map
(d) Laboratory work Total dissolved solids Total hardness Incrustation problem Magnesium concentration
(a) Topographic Map Survey of India: 57 O/
(b) Remote sensing data FCC –Landsat 5 FCC – IRS 1D (LISS III)
Classification of groundwater potential and groundwater quality suitable for domestic purposes
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Y. Srinivasa Rao & D. K. Jugran
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Table 1 Classification of various themes for delineation of groundwater potential zones. Class Criterion Percentage of study area Area (km^2 )
- Nearly level <1% 31.36 26. Slope (%):
- Very gentle 1–3% 27.33 22.
- Gentle 3–5% 6.15 5.
- Moderate 5–10% 13.85 11.
- Strong 10–15% 5.15 4.
- Moderately steep to steep 15–35% 11.98 10.
- Very steep >35% 4.18 3.
- Dolerite dike 2.99 2. Geology :
- Unnamed Archaean granitic gneiss 97.01 81.
- Alluvium 5.84 4. Hydromorphogeology :
- Moderately weathered pediplain 19.84 16.
- Shallow weathered pediplain 47.79 40.
- Pediment 2.17 1.
- Inselberg 0.12 0.
- Residual hill 12.19 10.
- Denudational hill 9.40 7.
- Very near <30 11.61 9. Drainage channel distance (m):
- Near 30–70 13.41 11.
- Far 70–120 15.44 12.
- Moderately far 120–140 5.55 4.
- Very far 140–180 10.44 8.
- Extremely far 180–210 6.46 5.
- Farthest >210 37.09 31.
- Very near <50 6.08 5. Tank distance (m):
- Near 50–140 6.62 5.
- Far 140–190 4.69 3.
- Moderately far 190–220 2.91 2.
- Very far 220–340 13.53 11.
- Extremely far 340–460 14.13 11.
- Farthest >460 52.04 43.
- Very near <30 4.64 3. Lineament distance (m):
- Near 30–120 15.86 13.
- Far 120–180 10.24 8.
- Moderately far 180–210 4.87 4.
- Very far 210–320 16.52 13.
- Farthest >320 47.87 40.
- Very shallow <1 0.09 0. Depth to water table (m):
- Shallow 1–2.8 30.58 25.
- Moderately shallow 2.8–7.5 50.47 42.
- Deep 7.5–11 14.64 12.
- Very deep >11 4.22 3.
- Very shallow <3 0.15 0. Weathered zone thickness (m):
- Shallow 3–6 24.87 20.
- Moderate 6–8 70.73 59.
- Deep 8–10 3.83 3.
- Very deep >10 0.42 0.
- Very low <30 0.02 0. Well yield (l min -1):
- Low 30–80 5.24 4.
- Moderate 80–150 38.81 32.
- High 150-300 47.94 40.
- Very high >300 7.99 6.
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The topographic slope of the area has its own importance in affecting the runoff, recharge and movement of surface water. From a slope percent analysis, topographic slopes within the study area were classified as nearly level, very gentle, gentle, moderate, strong, moderately steep to steep, and very steep (Table 1). About 58% of the study area was classified as nearly level to very gentle slope. Numerous low relief pediments are present in the very gentle, gentle, and moderate slope classes. Moderate relief hills are present in strong, moderately steep to steep, and very steep slope classes. Hydromorphogeological maps depict important geomorphic units, landforms and underlying geology so as to provide an understanding of the processes, materials/ lithology, structures, and geologic controls relating to groundwater occurrence as well as to groundwater prospects. Such maps depicting prospective zones for groundwater targeting are essential as a basis for planning and execution of groundwater explora- tion. Hydromorphogeologically, the study area has been classified as: denudational hill, residual hill, inselberg, moderately weathered pediplain (>5 m weathered zone thickness), shallow weathered pediplain (<5 m weathered zone thickness), pediment, or alluvium. Their characteristics and groundwater prospects are given in Table 2. Nearly 70% of the study area is covered by pediplains. The hills within the region comprise a total area of 21.71%. All of these hills are classified as residual hills, except for one denudational hill in the southeastern portion and one inselberg in the central part of the study area. Dolerite rocks intrude these hills at various locations and stand as ridges since they are more resistant than surrounding granitic gneisses. Pediments cover nearly 2.17% of the study area in the northwestern and SSW portions. Groundwater occurs under unconfined conditions in shallow, moderately weathered zones of the pediplain and in semi-confined conditions in joints, fissures, and fractures that extend beyond the weathered zones. The crystalline granites and gneisses of the region lack primary porosity. As such, secondary porosity (joints,
Table 2 Hydromorphogeological characteristics in Chittoor area, Chittoor district, AP, India. Unit Characteristics Groundwater prospects Alluvium (^) Nearly level surface along the river courses with gravel, coarse-fine sand, clay etc., at various locations coconut gardens and plantations are present.
Very good to excellent
Moderately weathered pediplain
Away from hills; gentle slopes with more vegetation. Weathered zones thickness ranges from 5 to 15 m. Along fractures, weathered zone thickness is more than 15 m.
Good to very good Very good Shallow weathered pediplain (PPS)
Gentle to moderate slope with sparse vegetation. Weathered zone thickness is less than 5 m. Along fractures weathered zone thickness is greater than 5 m.
Moderate
Moderate to good Pediment Moderate slopes with a veneer of detritus and broad undulating rock floor. Dike exposures are seen at some places. Along fractures potential is poor.
Poor to negligible
Inselberg Steep slopes occupying lesser dimensions. Nil Residual hill Group of massive hills occupying relatively small area present with dike intrusive.
Nil
Denudational hill A group of massive hills with resistant rock bodies, with medium to high relief.
Nil
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(6–10 m), moderately shallow water table levels (2.8–7.5 m), and moderate well yields (80–150 l min-1^ ) are present in moderately weathered pediplain to shallow weathered pediplains. Low groundwater potential zones cover an area of 3.850 km^2 where moderate to steep slope, extremely far to farthest distances to drainage, lineament and tank, deep to very deep water table levels, shallow to very shallow weathered zone thickness, and low to very low well yields are present as pockets spread over the whole study area. Very low groundwater potential zones are present in the northwestern corner of the study area and comprise an area of 0.025 km^2.
Quality of groundwater
The chemical quality of the groundwater largely depends on the nature of rock formations, physiography, soil environment, recharge, and draft conditions in which it occurs. The chemical composition of water is an important factor to be considered before it is used for domestic, irrigation or industrial purposes (Suresh et al ., 1991). Magnesium ion concentration, incrustation, total hardness (TH) and total dissolved solids (TDS) are considered criteria for classification of groundwater for domestic purposes (Table 4). According to WHO (1984) standards for suitable drinking water, magnesium ion should be below 30 mg l -1^ when sulphate is more than 250 mg l-1^ , and if magnesium is more than 150 mg l-1^ then sulphate should be below 250 mg l-1^. Based on this, groundwater beneath nearly 25% of the study area (21.042 km^2 ) is unsuitable for drinking purposes (Table 4).
Table 4 Classification of various aspects of groundwater quality for domestic purposes. Class Criteria Percentage of study area
Area (km^2 ) Bicarbonate and sulphate (mg l-1^ ): No incrustation HCO 3 <400 mg l -1^ and SO 4 <100 mg l -1^ 31.08 26. Soft incrustation HCO 3 >400 mg l -1^ 62.56 52. Hard incrustation SO 4 >100 mg l -1^ 6.36 5. Magnesium (mg l-1^ ): Suitable SO 4 >250 mg l -1^ and Mg <30 mg l - or SO 4 <250 mg l -1^ and Mg <150 mg l -
74.86 62.
Unsuitable Otherwise 25.14 21. Total dissolved solids (mg l-1^ ): Very low <250 0 0 Low 250–500 16.07 13. Moderate 500–750 18.12 15. High 750–1000 14.92 12. Very high >1000 50.89 42. Total hardness (mg l-1^ ): Soft water <75 0 0 Moderately hard water 75–150 0.02 0. Hard water 50–300 15.31 12. Very hard water >300 84.67 70.
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Most of the tube/filtered/bore wells fail due to incrustation and corrosion problems caused by poor water quality. Incrustation results from clogging of the aquifer around the well and the openings of the well screen causing a decrease in well capacity. Incrustation reduces the well yield and increases the pumping cost. Hard incrustation forms due to sulphates and silicates of calcium and magnesium. Most of the cases are due to deposition of CaCO 3 , which is usually the basic binder and causes the chief trouble. Calcium carbonate is easily removed by acid treatment. However, Ca, Mg and Al sulphates and silicates are insoluble in acids or other chemicals. According to Raghunath (1983), if the HCO 3 concentration is greater than 400 mg l-1^ , soft incrustation will form; however, if the SO 4 concentration is higher than 100 mg l-1^ , hard incrustation will form. In the greater part of the study area, bore-well suction pipes and water-supply lines are facing incrustation problems. Therefore, based on water quality, the study area has been classified as comprising regions of: soft incrustation, hard incrustation or no incrustation. Approximately 6.36% of the study area (5.323 km^2 ) can be classified as subject to hard incrustation problems and 62.56% of the area (52.363 km 2 ) subject to soft incrustation problems. Hardness of water affects its reaction with soap and causes scale and incrustation accumulation in containers and conduits where the water is heated or transported. According to the standards of Sawyer & McCarty (1967), 84.67% of the study area contains very hard water (>300mg l-1^ TH) and 15.31% of the area contains hard water (150–300 mg l -1^ TH). Only 0.02% of the area contains moderately hard water (75– 150 mg l -1^ TH). As a whole, the entire study area contains very hard water except within the northeastern, northwestern and southwestern portions which contain hard to moderately hard water at two or three point locations. Based on TDS standards (Anonymous, 1946; AWWA, 1950; Robinov et al ., 1958; Davis & DeWiest, 1967), nearly 51% of the study area (42.595 km^2 ) contains very high concentrations of total dissolved solids (in excess of 1000 mg l-1^ ). By integrating the thematic maps of magnesium, incrustation problem, TH and TDS, a map of suitable groundwater quality for domestic purposes was prepared. Water quality on this map was classified as: suitable, moderately suitable and un- suitable (Table 5). Groundwater of suitable quality for domestic purposes is available in the northeastern, southern, southwestern, southeastern and northwestern portions, comprising 30.06% of the study area. In general, the entire central portion (67.45%) of the study area, where Chittoor town is present, is moderately suitable. Regions with unsuitable quality of groundwater (2.49%) are present at the northeastern portion as a NW–SE trending strip, where sugar factory effluents and industrial estate effluents are released into the streams. These effluents subsequently seep into the groundwater system and pollute the groundwater. To identify the zones of suitable quality specifically in the potential zones, the map of groundwater potential zones, and the map of groundwater quality suitable for
Table 5 Classification of zones of groundwater quality suitable for domestic purpose (after integrating all aspects). Class Percentage of study area Area (km^2 ) Suitable 30.06 24. Moderately suitable 67.45 56. Unsuitable 2.49 2.
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832 Y. Srinivasa Rao & D. K. Jugran
for domestic purposes. The remaining 0.03% of the study area can be classified as having very low potential with suitable quality for domestic purposes.
CONCLUSIONS
Remotely sensed satellite image data from IRS ID and Landsat 5 provided information used to identify and outline geology, lineament features, geomorphological and hydro- morphogeological conditions. These features served as either direct, or indirect indica- tors of groundwater occurrence. The comprehensive use of GIS resulted in the development of an efficient and effective methodology of spatial data management and manipulation. The integration and analyses of various thematic maps and image data proved useful for the delineation of zones of groundwater potential and zones of groundwater quality suitable for domestic purposes. Zones with moderate to very high groundwater potential, which are present in the southeastern, southwestern, northeastern and central portions of the study area, are being polluted by insufficiently treated industrial effluents and municipal sewages. These zones are gradually becoming unsuitable to moderately suitable for domestic purposes. To help to overcome this situation, remedial measures have to be imple- mented by imposing restrictions on industries and municipalities for proper treatment of effluents and wastes as per the WHO and ISI standards for mitigating the sources of the pollution. Measures to be taken could include the construction of water-harvesting structures for augmentation of groundwater resources and also through the implementation of proper BMPs (best management practices) for watersheds throughout the region. Groundwater quality monitoring studies could also be conducted to monitor both new occurrences, and remediation of, particular pollutants affecting the available groundwater resources.
Acknowledgements Y. S. Rao is highly grateful to the Indian Institute of Remote Sensing (IIRS), Dehradun, India for providing the opportunity to learn the GIS applications in geosciences and also to its faculty members who helped with the project work. Thanks are due to the University Grants Commission (UGC) for providing Dr Rao with a Research Associateship during 1995–2000 and to the Department of Science and Technology (SR/FTP/ES-64/2000), Government of India for sanctioning financial assistance under the Fast Track Young Scientist programme. The author also thanks the anonymous reviewers for giving valuable suggestions for improving the quality of the paper.
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Received 22 July 2002; accepted 28 May 2003
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