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This literature review explores the experiences of gay Black men navigating their identities within the context of racism and homophobia in both the gay and Black communities. the impact of stereotypes, acceptance with stipulations, and the role of self-esteem and risky sexual behavior. The research also suggests ways to empower the gay Black community through research using the Scholar Activist approach.
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Clarence Ezra Brown III
Thesis submitted to the faculty of the Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Science In Sociology
Dr. Terry Kershaw Dr. Ellington T. Graves Dr. K. Jill Kiecolt
May 8th, 2008 Blacksburg, Virginia
Keywords: homosexuality, homophobia, racism, race
Clarence Ezra Brown III
ABSTRACT This research posed the question “How does racism in the gay community and homophobia in the Black community restrict gay Black male’s life chances and life opportunities?” Previous research has uncovered racist attitudes within the lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender (LGBT) community as well as homophobic attitudes within the Black community. Because of conflicting social identifiers (Is it possible for one to be both homosexual and Black?) and the invisibility of a gay Black voice, it is imperative to deconstruct the relationship between gay Black men and the communities they are a part of. I utilized qualitative in-depth interviewing techniques interviewing 15 Black men aged 18 and older who identified themselves as homosexual. The questions revolved around three primary questions designed to center the researcher…How do gay Black men describe their lives, How do gay Black men describe what their lives ought to be, and What obstacles do gay Black men see effecting their opportunity to live the lives they feel they ought to be living. The gay Black male research participants disclosed that because of Black stereotypes, gay stereotypes, acceptance with stipulations in the gay community and the black community, racism in the gay community, homophobia in the Black community, and perceptions of blackness and masculinity’s affect on gay Black men…gay Black men live their lives with various restrictions. In other words, gay Black men do not appear to be living their lives the way they feel they ought to be living it. This work is important because a majority of the participants stated they wished to live restriction free lives. They are not able to fully be themselves in their daily lives and often have to assimilate to be accepted.
iv
This work would not have been possible without the support and encouragement of my mentor, Dr. Laura Gillman, under whose supervision I originally chose this topic and began the thesis. Dr. Terry Kershaw, my advisor throughout my graduate career, has also been amazingly helpful in the writing of my thesis, the defense of my proposal, and critiquing my work ensuring that it is of the highest quality. Both of you have been substantial in my academic growth as a student and as a professional. Thank you both for believing in me and for always pushing me to greater endeavors. I would also like to thank Us Helping Us and the DC Sentinels for allowing me to solicit aid in my research. Your help was invaluable and through your organizations I’ve made incredible friends and supportive family. I would like to especially thank Ra Amin and Tim Francis for welcoming me into those organizations and encouraging others to participate. Finally, I would like to thank my amazing parents and partner who love me for who I am and support me in all that I do. You all have always encouraged me to do my best and when I’ve fallen, you’ve always picked me up. Thank you for your unconditional love and for instilling in me the confidence that I am capable of doing anything I put my mind to. Thank you for everything. I love you all!
Abstract …………………………………………………………………………………. Dedication…………………………………………………………………………..……. iii Acknowledgements ………………………………………………………………..…..… iv
In 1980 at the Democratic National Convention held in New York City Melvin Boozer, candidate for the Democratic nomination for Vice President of the United States, spoke of the struggles oppressed communities face in America. In particular he highlighted the Gay, Lesbian, Bisexual, and Transgender (GLBT) community as well as the Black community. In his address Boozer stated, “Would you ask me how I’d dare to compare the civil rights struggle with the struggle for lesbian and gay rights? I can compare, and I do compare them. I know what it means to be called a nigger. I know what it means to be called a faggot. And I can sum up the difference in one word: none. Bigotry is bigotry. I have been booed before. Discrimination is discrimination. It hurts just as much. It dishonors our way of life just as much, and it betrays a common lack of understanding, fairness, and compassion” (http://www.glaa.org/archive/1980/boozerconventionspeech.shtml). Now, almost thirty years after this address, discrimination still persists against the GLBT and Black communities. The question still remains however…what about the discrimination against those who fall within both the GLBT and Black communities and how has that discrimination affected their life chances? Racism continues to be a problem within the GLBT community. I remember going to my first pride celebration in Washington D.C. and walking around wondering where all the Black people were. I found it strange that so few gay Black men would participate in the pride celebration as D.C. is known for having a high population of gay Black men. I was later informed that D.C.’s “Black Gay Pride” was typically held a week or two before D.C.’s “Capital Pride” celebration. I remember immediately questioning why there were two separate pride celebrations. Is the gay community really this racially divided? From a large survey of Black GLBT individuals, half reported problems dealing with racism from other White GLBT individuals (Battle et al. 2002, p. 44). From the same survey respondents who had negative experiences with White LGBT people at GLBT community events, in White GLBT organizations, and in bars and clubs were more likely to agree that the racism of Whites was a problem for Black GLBT people when dealing with White GLBT communities (Battle et al. 2002, p 44). Because of this White racism within the GLBT
community it appears that Blacks have less involvement in the GLBT community (Lewis and Rogers 2002; Stokes, Vanable, and McKirnan 1996). Speaking from my personal experience as an out Black gay man, I have encountered many instances of racist attitudes within the White GLBT community. When I initially came out of the closet I attended GLBT meetings for support and found that no one understood the struggle of being both gay and Black. I found that their struggles were not similar to mine and I looked elsewhere for others like me. Black gay men not only face racism within the gay community but also face homophobia within the Black community. When I came out of the closet I lost the majority of my Black male friends. This rejection, because of my sexuality, caused me to isolate myself further from the Black community. Whenever I was in predominately Black settings I felt I had to conceal my homosexuality for fear of being unwanted or rejected. Blacks who identify as gay rely more on their racial community for acceptance than Whites who identify as gay (Cohen 1999, Icard 1986). AIDS research has found that Black gay men are more likely than White gay men to think their friends disapprove of homosexuality, engage in sex with women, and tend to identify themselves as heterosexual (Stokes et al. 1996; Stokes and Peterson 1998; U.S. Centers for Disease Control [CDC] 2000). AIDS research also has shown that gay Black males who perceive homophobia in the Black community tend to disclose their sexual orientation, tend to engage in riskier sexual behavior, and tend to have low self-esteem issues (Peterson et al. 1992; Stokes and Peterson 1998). It has also been found that Blacks disapprove of homosexual behavior and homosexual culture more strongly than Whites (Hudson and Ricketts 1980; Lewis 2003; Schneider and Lewis 1984; Tiemeyer 1993). These are all reasons homophobia needs to be confronted within the Black community as it renders gay Blacks invisible with no support from either community they claim membership to. Black gay male experiences are different than White gay male experiences as they deal with not only the oppression of being gay but also the oppression of being Black in American society. Gay Black men do not deal with these oppressions individually but face them holistically. Blacks who identify as gay face more disapproval from their families and straight friends than do similar Whites (Lewis 2003). Lewis also states that because of the link between perceptions of homophobia in the Black community and lower self-esteem and riskier sexual behavior among Black men who have sex with other men, this disapproval places even greater obstacles to self-acceptance and safe sexual behaviors in the paths of Black youths than White
The overarching research question for this thesis is “whether racism in the gay community and homophobia in the Black community restrict gay Black men’s ability to live their lives to their full potential?” The relationship between gay Black men and their respective communities has received greater attention in various academic disciplines today. Previous research has disclosed racist attitudes within the lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender (LGBT) community as well as homophobic attitudes within the Black community. Lack of support structures, difficulties with self-acceptance, and religious fears have also plagued the gay Black male community. Because of conflicting social identifiers (Is it possible for one to be both homosexual and Black?) and the invisibility of a gay Black voice, it is imperative to deconstruct the relationship between gay Black men and the communities they are a part of.
Negotiating Perceptions of Blackness and Homosexuality So what does it mean to be both homosexual and Black in America? Many researchers have acknowledged the difficulty gay Black men face negotiating being gay and being Black. American society is dominated by a heterosexual culture that has made it extremely difficult for homosexuals to live the lives they feel they ought to be living. Pepper Schwartz and Virginia Rutter, authors of The Gender of Sexuality: Race, Class, and Gender, state “Despite the norm of true love currently accepted in our culture, personal choice and indiscriminate sexuality have often been construed across cultures and across history as socially disruptive” (453). Because of this prevalent heteronormativity, homophobia exists largely in American culture. However, gay Black males also face the difficulties of racial discrimination. The racial discrimination battle for Blacks is not only fought externally but internally as well. Pioneering sociologist and civil rights activist W.E.B. Du Bois has discussed in his writings the struggle Blacks face in understanding themselves in regards to where they live in what he defined as “double consciousness.” Gay Black men also have a sense of double consciousness as they negotiate not only being Black but also being homosexual and male. Cornel West addresses internalized racism in Black sexuality stating, “This demythologizing of Black sexuality is crucial for Black America because much of Black self-hatred and self-contempt has to do with the refusal of many Black Americans to love their own Black bodies – especial their Black
noses, hips, lips, and hair” (457). Gay Black men thus struggle not only between two cultural groups (Gay community and the Black community), but also struggle with their understanding of what it means to be masculine and an American citizen. The multi-consciousness dilemma gay Black men face has been made prevalent by many researchers. Research has disclosed that gay Black men are often forced to choose between the gay community and the Black community. Johnson (1982) has conducted the most exhaustive research on gay Black men regarding the ways in which they justify their group affiliation to either the gay community or Black community. Johnson’s study sampled approximately 60 gay Black men to see which social location they viewed as most central to their life. His research wielded two groups of gay Blacks. “Black-identified” gays are defined as gay Black men who self identified more with the Black community and “gay-identified” Blacks defined as gay Black men who self identified more with the gay community. Johnson’s study use of binary categories does not categorize those gay Black males that did not fall directly into one or the other. The study also does not take into account the fluidity of identifying with multiple identities over time making it appear that once we self-identify with any group or community it is permanent. Other researchers have also researched this aspect of the gay Black male community (1996; Loiacano, 1989; Peterson, 1992). Gregory Conerly, author of “Are You Black First or Are You Queer?” takes their research further explicating the harm gay Black men endure when choosing one community over the other. I agree with Conerly’s research in which he states, “The goal, then, is to have a multiplicity of nonoppressive black lesbigay identities that takes into account the diversity among us” (21). This thesis centers the gay Black male perspective, which gives voices to an array of difference within the gay Black community.
The Relationship between the Gay and Black Communities The relationship between the gay community and Black community has been one of association and disassociation. The gay community throughout history has likened their struggle to that of Blacks in America. The Black community has had little interaction with the gay community and has attempted to distance itself from being compared to the gay community. Keith Boykin, author of One More River to Cross, often speaks to the dissensions between the Gay community and the Black community. His entire text analyzes both the gay community and Black community’s relationship to each other and gay Black men. Boykin’s writings also
Black community. Gay Black men, because of racism in the LGBT community, face alienation and struggle in attempting to seek support structures that speak to their perspective.
Homophobia within the Black Community Also, a great amount of research has been directed toward homophobia in the Black community. Authors such as bell hooks, Keith Boykin, Beverly Guy-Sheftall, Eric Brandt, Rudolph P. Byrd, Barbara Smith, Cheryl Clarke, and others have all discussed homophobia within the Black community. In Dangerous Liaisons: Blacks, Gays, and the Struggle for Equality, Eric Brandt pieces together several impressive researchers and writers works on race and homosexuality. “Though the two communities have very different histories, as minorities in America both groups face some similar challenges. It has always seemed to me that these two groups have much to learn from each other, even to gain from working together.” What Brandt hopes to achieve is a dialogue between the Black community and the gay community, which I agree is necessary to bridge the dissention that already exists. Brandt’s’ work is essential to consider because dialogue has the ability to bridge misconceptions between the two oppressed groups. Brandt’s’ work solely seeks to create dialogue, but I would argue that dialogue does nothing if those groups still have misconceptions about their own identities. If dialogue is passed between the two oppressed groups that reinforce negative stereotypes about the other, then there can be no progress. Barbara Smith, a Black lesbian writer, also speaks to the divide between the Black community and the gay community. Her book, The Truth that Never Hurts, dedicates a chapter specifically to this issue. Smith’s approach however is different than Brandt’s because Smith focuses on the specific identities of being Black and being gay. Smith states, “The underlying assumption is that I should prioritize one of my identities because one of them is actually more important than the rest or that I must arbitrarily choose one of them over the others for the sake of acceptance in one particular community.” This is an issue gay Black men face as they have “loyalties” to each of their respective communities. This also echoes Boykin’s sentiments in his writings about ranking oppressions or placing race above sexuality or vice versa. Smith acknowledges the double consciousness that many gay Black men face in choosing between the gay community and the Black community.
Bell hooks’ opinion on Black homophobia correlates with that of Barbara Smith’s. In bell Hook’s book, Talking Back, she makes note of the blatant homophobia in the Black community. “To strengthen the solidarity between black folks irrespective of our sexual preferences, allegiance must be discussed” (Hooks: 124). Hooks is one of the primary academics leading the charge to give a voice to all homosexuals who are minorities. Hooks shares other author’s sentiments in that she too feels that gay Blacks face alienation and isolation from the gay community and the Black community. “Often black gay folk feel extremely isolated because there are tensions in their relationships with the larger, predominately white gay community created by racism, and tensions within black communities around issues of homophobia” (Hooks: 125). By making the issue known and prevalent, Hooks hopes to create an area within the Black community for gay Black men to belong. Cheryl Clarke’s article “The Failure to Transform” which falls within Eric Brandt’s collected pieces places responsibility on both homosexual Blacks and heterosexual Blacks to empower the relationship between the gay and Black communities. This is not to assume that ending homophobia in the Black community will solve all problems that exist between the gay Black community and the Black community. The authors simply see the embrace of these communities as a step in the right direction for all.
Gay Black men and Issues of Masculinity and Homosexuality In Traps: African American Men on Gender and Sexuality, Rudolph P. Byrd and Beverly Guy-Sheftall piece together several articles concerning race, sexuality, and masculinity regarding Black men. The title reminds the readers the point the editors hope to get at in the text that Black men, in particular gay Black men are trapped amongst conflicting identities and communities. This idea of being trapped is central because in essence that is how many Black men feel regarding those taboo subjects (sexuality and race). The authors state in their text that they wish to chart the progressive engagement of African American men on the crucial and diverse issues of homophobia. Although the authors agree with both Boykin and Smith they differentiate themselves by placing a great deal of the responsibility to bridge the gap between the gay community and Black community on Black men. There are some who do not feel that it is possible to be both gay and Black. Molefi Kete Asante, writer of the text Afrocentricity: The Theory of Social Change does not see homosexuality as a characteristic of Blackness. Asante defines Afrocentricity as such…
Taboo: Homosexuality in Black Communities, the question is asked whether or not homosexuality is the greatest taboo? Constantine-Simms, E. Patrick Johnson, and Horace Griffin all provide articles that analyze the relationship between homosexuality and religion (specifically the Black church). All authors agree that the bible has been co-opted by the religious right placing a greater emphasis on separation rather than integration. The authors all compare the homophobia that revolves around religion to the racism and sexism that still today clouds religion. Constantine-Simms states, “With the interpretive grid provided by a critique of domination, we are able to filter out the sexism, patriarchalism, violence, and homophobia that are very much a part of the Bible, thus liberating it to reveal to us in fresh ways the in breaking, in our time, of God’s domination-free order” (87). Both Johnson and Griffin support Constantine-Simm’s assertion that if we attack all forms of oppression that remain present in the Bible, perhaps we can then move toward a more equal and just society. Griffin differentiates stating that the relationship between the Black church and whether or not they support homosexuality is irrelevant. Griffin states that the greater issue lies with whether or not the Black community will practice justice toward all fellow Christians. Griffin believes that homosexuality is part of human sexuality just as Blacks are a member of the human race. “Chip Murray, pastor of the First AME Church in Los Angeles, points to church and society’s perception of a heterosexual orientation as “normal” as a cause of homophobia (Jabir).” Johair Osaze Jabir, author of “A Whosoever Church: Welcoming Lesbians and Gay Men into African American Congregations,” writes a telling article citing religion and normativity as reasons for homophobia in American culture. The article makes valid the importance of religion in the Black community. Religion has been a steadfast in Black society since they had the right to organize in a church. “The Christian Right, however, has increasingly challenged the LGB (Lesbian, gay, bisexual) movement’s claim to “the moral legacy of the black civil rights movement,” arguing that gays seek “special rights” that should be restricted to legitimate minorities and targeting Blacks for many of their arguments (Jabir).” That last quote shows the moral normative base of the Christian right challenging Blacks to not allow gays to ride on the coattails of their movement. The article cites religion as a reason for homophobia, but fails to recognize the dominant culture (White culture) inciting conflict between the two minority groups at question. This article is important because religion is the basis of many of our cultural norms
in society today. The author fails to state this point and connect the obvious dissention between homosexuality, religion, and African Americans in the church. There are those who do not view homosexuality as something that should be supported by the church. In Keith Boykin’s book One More River to Cross, he speaks of several ministers he’s interviewed regarding homosexuality and religion. The majority of reverends interviewed agreed that homosexuality is a sin often quoting the Bible to reinforce their opinion. Boykin highlights one reverend in particular who has targeted the gay community as sinners. Boykin cites the Reverend James Sykes as one of best known opponents of homosexuality in the Black church. Boykin quotes Sykes defending a Klu Klux Klan meeting, “If I like pork chops and the Klan likes pork chops, nobody has nothing to say. But because the Klan agrees that homosexuality is wrong, and I agree that homosexuality is wrong, then all the sudden I’m sleeping with the Klan” (127-128). This attitude toward homosexuality is appalling considering Sykes is the pastor of a four hundred plus member church. Boykin, along with several other scholars, assert that the language of religion has been co-opted by right wing moralists who want nothing more than to eradicate homosexuality from the church.
Media Perceptions and Public Perceptions of Black Homosexuality Images of Black homosexuality have been predominately negative in popular culture today. Across the board all individuals who have researched this topic agree that gay Black men are represented negatively in popular culture. Gay Black men have been portrayed as void of masculinity, hyper-sexual, sassy, and flamboyant. Marlon T. Riggs, author of Black Macho Revisited: Reflections of a Snap! Queen, discusses his anger towards the straight men of the Black community. Riggs states that he expected the obstacles in life from the White community because of his race, but never expected obstacles from his own brothers regarding his sexuality. Riggs believes that they should understand what it is like to be oppressed, and therefore should reject any notion of oppression since they have to face a form of it everyday as well. Riggs cites several Black men who have done nothing but participate in the degradation of the gay Black male. His best example lies in a comedy show that used to air entitled In Living Color, in which two straight Black men portrayed gay Black men to review movies from a “man’s point of view.” Riggs also brings the discussion up again regarding the ‘trap” of being gay and Black. “I am a Negro Faggot, if I believe what movies, TV, and rap music say of me. Because of my
family that they do not receive anywhere else. The lack of support structures for gay Black men has been a problem and still remains a problem today.
Current media is attempting to break this mold as “Noah’s Arc,” “The D.L. Chronicles,” and other gay Black male themed media present an array of gay Black personality types. While some of those negative stereotypes that have been reinforced by popular media still exist, these new forms are seeking to deconstruct those past stereotypes and show the world that there is no monolithic image of gay Black men.
Black Homosexuality and Black Studies/Africana Studies: Silent Voices Black homosexuality has begun to dig a niche in the Black studies/Africana studies discipline. Several books have been produced that illuminate the growing body of literature that discusses Black homosexuality. Black Queer Studies is an anthology edited by Patrick Johnson and Mae Henderson which has been written to create a space for the Black queer voice. They state, “Black Queer Studies serves as a critical intervention in the discourses of Black studies and Queer studies” (1). The volume is divided into four parts: “Disciplinary Tensions: Black Studies/Queer Studies” (explores the manners in which Black studies has eluded homosexuality and Queer Studies has eluded race); “Representing the ‘Race’: Blackness, Queers, and the Politics of Visibility” (explores the ways in which Black queer body signifies within the American imaginary); “How to Teach the Unspeakable: Race, Queer Studies, and Pedagogy” (engages the issue of how integrating the study of sexuality into the classroom complicates a space that is already fraught with erotic tensions and negotiations of power; and lastly “Black Queer Fiction: Who is ‘Reading’ Us?” (Looks at the past and present literature involving the gay Black community. The issues are also prevalent in the text Critical Essays: Gay and Lesbian Writers of Color. Siobhan Somerville’s text, Queering the Color Line: Race and the Invention of Homosexuality in American Culture, seeks to uncover the ways in which the “creation” of homosexuality identities has colluded with the creation of racial distinctions overtime throughout American history within American culture. Furthermore it views both race and sexuality as interconnecting, blending aspects of both critical race theory and queer theory. Somerville also relays to the reader ways in which historical processes of restricting racial and sexual progress have been uniquely similar since their inception. The interconnections of race and sexuality
throughout history have served as a means of producing an “other” and also have restricted Black’s because of their race and homosexual’s because of their sexuality. Likewise it has restricted Blacks because of their sexuality and homosexuals because of their race. As Somerville states, “This book has attempted to demonstrate a range of approaches for understanding the ways in which representations of supposed differences between “Black” and “white” and “heterosexual” and “homosexual” bodies summoned and shaped one another in late- nineteenth- and early-twentieth-century American culture (166).” Somerville’s text fits nicely within Black Queer Theory and Black Queer Studies. It is evident that this author has only scratched the surface of the relationship between blackness and homosexuality; however, she provides hope for the field of Black Queer Theory. Although the subject of the interconnections of race and sexuality are not new, as Black feminist have preached the importance of the interconnections of race, class, gender and sexuality, Somerville still manages to present the relationship in a fresh inventive light that reminds us of importance of historical oppressions and how they affect our futures. Although research has been done to attempt to understand the community of gay Black men, their voice still remains silent. If we search within literature that speaks primarily to Black males, a reoccurring theme becomes visible. Gay Black men are repeatedly left out of a good portion of literature that is intended to empower ALL Black men. Anderson Franklin’s From Brotherhood to Manhood, Richard Majors and Janet Billson’s Cool Pose: The Dilemmas of Black Manhood in America, and Don Belton’s Speak my Name are all examples of literature that is intended to uplift Black males. However, they all avoid the discussion of gay Black men and their place within their community. These books all speak to the silence of Black men in academia, the media, and society as a whole but fail to realize their own function in silencing a minority within their own community. All the texts do speak to significant issues within the Black community that affects Black males such as the importance of developing a positive self- image, erasing racial stereotypes, and respecting Black women. Again the question remains whether or not gay Black men have a place within the Black community? Robert F. Reid-Pharr’s book, Black Gay Man Essays discusses the Million Man March and the invisibility of gay Black men. Pharr cites several critiques of the supposed march for equality and empowerment of Black men, primarily with the message that was being relayed. Pharr states that the Million Man March only reinforced binary understanding of sexuality and
