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PSYCHOSOCIAL FACTORS CONTRIBUTING TO^ DEPRIVATION^ IN^ CHILD^ DEVELOPMENT
Stephen A. Richardson, Ph.D.
Deprivation is^ a^ broad^ general^ term^ which^ cannot^ be^ translated directly into a precise, quantitative definition. Rather, it is a^ concept covering a broad territory which must be mapped out into a series of^ more carefully defined areas that lend themselves to precise measurement and research. The meaning of the verb "deprive" encompasses such synonyms^ as "disposses", "take away," "hinder froni possessing," "shut^ out,"^ "keep from having." There is also the connotation that deprivation^ occurs^ because of some inequity,^ -^ that^ a^ child^ died^ of^ starvation^ in^ an^ environment^ in which food was available but was not given him because of the fault^ or neglect of some person or persons or of the economic or^ political^ system as a whole. Deprivation occurs when a person does not^ have^ something^ that is important to which he has a right.
There is also inherent in the term a value judgment. The^ person^ who makes the judgment of whether any particular^ case^ involves^ deprivation does so always from a position of membership in a^ particular^ society^ and^ in terms of the values and^ positions^ he^ holds^ within^ the^ society.^ To^ some *xtent he^ may^ modify^ or^ change^ his^ judgment^ on^ the^ basis^ of^ the^ time,^ place and set of conditions in^ which^ the^ case^ of^ deprivation^ occurs.^ For^ example, he may^ not^ regard^ as^ deprived^ a^12 year-old^ child^ who^ has^ not^ learned^ to read in^ a^ nomadic^ or^ peasant^ society^ where^ few^ learn^ to^ read,^ but^ will^ proba- bly judge a child of the same age in a western urban^ environment^ as^ deprived
if he has been given no training in reading when^ almost^ all^ other^ chil- dren read by this age. Unless the positions of^ the^ judge^ and^ person^ judged are carefully considered, there is real danger^ of^ ethnocentrism^ in^ deciding whether or not deprivation^ occurs.
Twa kinds of evidence can lead us to^ suspect^ the^ existence^ of deprivation, The first is whether the^ child^ is^ able^ to^ perform^ at^ a^ given age within the level of expectations and^ demands^ commonly^ expected^ by^ his society. Some of these expectations will^ be^ general^ to^ many^ societies,^ such as remaining alive, in^ good^ health^ and^ without^ any^ permanent^ handicap.^ Evi- dence for deprivation then^ is^ mortality,^ morbidity^ and^ the^ presence^ of^ a permanent handicap.^ Other^ expectations^ for^ the^ child^ will^ vary^ depending^ on the skills^ and^ talents^ needed^ by^ the^ society^ in^ which^ the^ child^ lives.^ Some societies may^ stress^ for^ boys^ physical^ stamina,^ agility^ and^ strength^ for hunting; others^ may^ emphasize^ intellectual^ and^ conceptual^ abilities^ for^ the skills needed^ in^ a^ technologically^ advanced^ industrialized^ urban^ way^ of^ life.
The second kind^ of^ evidence^ needed^ to^ judge^ a^ case^ of^ deprivation involves the upbringing and experiences which^ the^ child^ has^ had.^ Every society through time has^ evolved^ child-rearing^ practices^ which^ gives^ the child a complex array of^ experiences^ designed^ to^ preserve^ life,^ maintain health and seek^ to^ avoid^ chronic^ or^ handicapping^ conditions.^ They^ also develop physical motor, intellectual, sensory and^ social^ skills^ so^ the^ child is prepared for life as an adult in his society.^ If^ a^ child^ does^ not^ receive
than the child's life. Wc have evidence that mental subnormality is^ asso- ciated with pregnancy complications of the mother (R. Masland, et^ al,^ 1958; R. Illsley and D. Fairweather, 1960). But we also know^ from^ the^ work^ of Baird and his associates that pregnancy and delivery complications^ occur more frequently in lower- than^ upper-class^ women.^ There^ appears^ to^ be^ some complex intarraction then among^ lower-class^ membership,^ complications^ of pregnancy and delivery and mental subnormality.^ Kwashiorkor^ in^ infancy would be taken as^ strong^ evidence^ of^ deprivation.^ But^ the^ range^ of^ evidence needed to identify the^ essential^ experiences^ that^ lead^ to^ kwashiorkor^ is extremely complex, as^ is^ shown^ by^ a^ case^ of^ a^ child^ in^ a^ Central^ American country. The^ child^ was^ admitted^ to^ a^ hospital^ at^2 years^ of^ age^ with kwashiorkor. The^ mother^ reported^ that^ her^ husband^ had^ become^ an^ alcoholic and deserted her 18 months previously. She had five children and,^ to^ support them, went to work in a tortilla factory^ for^ approximately^ six^ hours^ a^ day. For this work she was paid 15 cents a day^ plus^ a^ dozen^ tortillas.^ While^ she worked at the factory, the children were left without any^ adult^ care.^ The youngest child developed chronic diarrhea, and she placed the^ child^ on^ an atole diet.^ Kwashiorkor^ developed^ and^ she^ then^ brought^ the^ child^ to^ the hospital.
The experiences of this child are^ related^ to^ the^ general^ historic and political conditions of the country, the social and^ economic^ conditions of the urban slums surrounding the^ city,^ the^ level^ of^ hygiene,^ the^ social pathology of the family, the mother's being forced to work,^ her^ values^ and training in how to care^ for^ chronic^ diarrhea,^ and^ the^ kinds^ of^ advice^ which she felt were available to her and she would use.
The value of the concept of deprivation for scientific research
is to direct inquiry into areas^ where^ we^ need^ more^ knowledge^ about^ what
are necessary experiences for children in order that they meet^ the^ expec-
tations of the society in^ which^ they^ live.^ In^ terms^ of^ social^ and^ psycholo-
gical factors, for example, to^ explore^ whether^ certain^ patterns^ of^ child
care differentiate children with different rates of physical growth; whether
certain forms of residential^ institutional^ care^ for^ rearing^ children^ do
not provide children with certain experiences such as love and support,
play and opportunities to explore a colorful and varied physical environment,
sufficient time with adulta for adequate development of speech, and whether
these are necessary for adequate^ socialization.^ Much^ work^ of^ this^ kind^ has
been attempted and will be the subject of this paper. It^ was^ nearly^ done,
however, in westernized industrial societies^ and^ we^ should^ remain^ alert^ to
the danger of both the ethnocentric view of the investigator and^ the^ cultural
conditions in which the work took place.^ There^ can^ be^ ethnocentrism^ in
adherence to a particular scientific approach, theory or viewpoint as well
as in the selection of topic for investigation.
Mortality,Social^ Factors Morbidity,^ Associated and Handicap^ With
An important body of research findings relating childhood mortal-
ity, morbidity and handicapping conditions to social environmental factors
has been obtained through use of epidemiology. Although epidemiology^ devel-
oped in the search for the causes of diseases such as pellagra, cholera,
typhoid and malaria,^ it^ has^ increasingly^ been^ used^ for^ the^ study^ of^ disabling
groups such as Spanish Americans, French Canadians and Indians in Central America are frequently found to have higher infant mortality rates and childhood morbidity. Ethnic and racial minority groups are found most often in the lowest social class where there is the greatest degree of poverty. And along with this poverty are other factors which have been shown to be associated with higher mortality and morbidity -- high parity, close spacing of children, prenuptial conception and illegitimacy, poor hygiene, broken homes and mothers leaving young children to take unskilled employment to achieve a minimu level of subsistence.
Shifts in the Viewpoint and Interests of Scientists
The close association between poverty and a wide variety of indi- cators of physical (^) and social pathology has been known for a long time, but until recently few (^) scientists have gone further than demonstrating the
existence of this association. Perhapa the apathy in the face of such power-
ful findings may be (^) accounted for in part by the widespread belief in theo- ries of constitutional inferiority, the procese of natural selection, and such economic views as the iron law of oligarchy. These theories led to a viewpoint and values rather similar to those of Mc Farland who, in 1782, (in Encyclopedia Britannica, edition of 1960) wrote: "in tracing the causes of poverty, 1 have endeavored to show that the greatest number of those who are now objects of charity are either such as have reduced (^) themselves to this situation by sloth and vice, or such as, by a very moderate degree of industry and frugality might have prevented indigence".
There is, however, increasing interest^ and^ attention^ being^ paid to the view that poverty with^ all^ the^ deprivation^ associated^ with^ it^ is not a necessary state of any^ society.^ There^ are^ many^ forces^ encouraging^ this view: the growing^ number^ of^ independent^ nations^ who^ previously^ were^ under colonial rule;^ the^ civil^ rights^ movement,^ which^ is^ challenging^ the^ tradi- tional caste treatment of^ the^ Negro;^ the^ growing^ demand^ for^ training^ and education as technological development reduces^ the^ need^ for^ unskilled^ labor, and en increasing recognition of^ the^ needs^ for^ dealing^ with^ a^ wide^ variety of deprivation^ and^ social^ pathology^ through^ prevention^ rather^ than^ treat- ment in such forms as social welfare, crime detection and punishment, provision of^ health^ services,^ etc.^ In^ the^ United^ States,^ this^ interest is manifested by the antipoverty program,^ the^ new^ educational^ legislation for providing enrichment programs to^ deprived^ children,^ and^ recent^ and pending civil^ rights^ legislation.
Tht general developing interest^ in^ factors^ that^ contribute^ to deprivation in children^ has^ influenced^ research^ interests.^ Although^ scientific interest still continues in genetics and biochemistry and^ on^ innate^ mecha- nisms that influence growth, greater emphasis^ is^ now^ being^ given^ to^ environ- mental factors both biological and social. In^ recent^ reviews^ of^ mental^ sub- normality (Masland, et al, 1958; Penrose, 1954;^ Knobloch,^ 1962),^ the^ authors estimate that geneticand chromosomal abnormalities^ contribute^ only^ a^ minor proportion of all^ cases^ of^ mental^ subnormality^ as^ compared^ with^ biological and social environmental factors^ before^ and^ after^ birth.^ This^ shift^ in emphasis is strongly expressed by Pasamanick: exogenous...Except^ forinjury^ a^ few to^ hereditaryneural integration,^ clinical deficienciesbehavior variation^ and^ for doesstructural not^ seem origin.^ to^ be Itthe is^ resultnow possible^ of^ genetically to entertain^ determined a new tabula rasa theory hypothecating that at conception individuals^ are
- 10 - investigators found that children in lower-class families had bronchitis, pneumonia, staphylococcal disease, convulsions and infections disease^ more frequently than children of higher social status. Going beyond the gross classification of social class, investigators described, defined, and classified for purposes of analysisfeatures of the children's family environrent which they believed contributed to the level of health of the child: the mother's care of the child, the structural environment of the housing, the human environment of the family; and a series of factors by which an index could^ be^ constructed^ of^ problem^ families.^ When^ these measures of social and physical environment were releted to the children's diseases, associations were obtained^ where^ none^ had^ been^ evident^ on^ the basis of the unrefined classifications^ of^ social^ class.^ For example, although no significant relationship was found between alimentary infec- tions and social class, significant relationships were found between^ the disease and deficiency of supervision and clothing, personal cleanliness, and sleep and sleeping arrangements. The investigators were impressed by the importance of the quality of the mothers'care as the chief single factor in the welfare of the infants. In their conclusions, they also emphasize the complex interrelationships and cumulativeness of biological^ and^ social environmental factors in the causation of^ disease.
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Social and Psychological Factors That
Influence Social Psychological Development
There have been a number of careful sociological descriptions of
child development in socially and culturally deprived children. Davis and
Dollard (1940), through case histories of Negro children in Louisiana, make
vivid the ways in which the white person is taught the social dogma of his
caste with regard to Negroes, the rigidity of the caste system and its effect
on the personality development and aspirations of Negro children; and
particularly the human bitterness and resentment that is engendered by their
childhood experiences.
Oscar Lewis, in Five Families and Children of Sanchez, presents
detailed case histories of Mexican families in rural and urban environments
and shows some of the social environmental factors that influence the
children's growth and development. Although not dealing specifically with
children, Caudill (1962), shows the social effects of industrial exploitation
in Kentucky and the poverty of the region when the mines closed down. The
following composite description which Martin Deutsch (Merrill Palmer
Quarterly, July 1964), gives of lower-class life illustrates the kinds of
leads for further work which such descriptions provide. *
... Geographically, there are crowded and dilapidated tenements
quite at variance with the TV image of how people live. If the
people are Negro, Puerto Rican or Mexican-American, or poor
mountain white, life is in a more-or-less segregated community.
There are likely to be extremely crowded apartments, high rates
of unemployment, chronic economic insecurity, a disproportionate
*See also Frank Riessman: The Culturally Deprived Child, Harper and
Row, New York, Evanston and London, 1962, for "a portrait of the
underprivileged, " page 26-35.
time spent in teaching (James B. Conant, 1961; Patricia C. Sexton, 1961;
and James Douglas, 1964), Studies by Martin Deutsch and his colleagues
(Merrill-Palmer Quarterly, 1964) have shown that differences in school
performance between children of lower and higher social classes emerge at
early ages.
.. The overwhelming finding of studies on the relationship
between social class and learning, school performance, and
the like is that children from backgrounds of social marginality
enter the first grade already behind their middle-class counter-
parts in a number of skills related to scholastic achievement.
They are simply less prepared to meet the demands of the school
and the classroom situation. Conversely, though, the school has
failed to prepare to meet their needs. The failure of the educa-
tional institution to overcome the children's environmentally
determined handicaps too often results in early failure, increasing
alienation, and an increasingly greater gap between the lower-
class and middle-class youngsters as they progress through school.
In other words, intellectual and achievement differences between
lower-class and middle-class children are smallest at the first grade level,
and tend to increase through the elementary school years. (page 254)
The findings of poorer performance at school entry for lower-class
marginal children did not have any beneficial consequences for these children
as long as the explanation was genetic, or intelligence was regarded as inate
and fixed. With increasing evidence of the postulated importance of the social
environment in influencing cognitive development, however, differences in
performance at school entry have led to two rapidly developing bodies of re-
search and action. In research,studies are now investigating the nature of
the early environment to determine whether the socially marginal children
are being deprived of experiences necessary for later adequate growth and
development. In action, a widespread program is getting under way in the
United States to[better prepare the child to meet the expectations and
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demands of the school when he enters school. A great deal of thought and
attention is going into the nature of these pre-school "enríchment" programs.
In this paper, however, we shall focus on some of the social science research
on socially marginal children. Because many of these studies are still under
way, perhaps the most useful form of reporting is to illustrate the kinds of
questions and hypotheses that guide the work and some of the variables being
studied.
A major emphasis in these recent studies has been in sensory
development - in identifying the kinds of environment and experiences
necessary for the adequate development of auditory reception and discrimina-
tion, and the development of language, visual and tactile learning. This
probably stems from the interest of educators in the development of
cognitive skills, from some evidence that sensory development is more
sensitive to environmental influences than motor development (See J. McV.
Hunt in Merrill-Palmer Quarterly, July 1964), and from reports of differences
in perception between and within cultures (Allport & Pettigrew, 1957; Bagby,
1957; Nissen, Machover, & Kinder, 1935; Rivers, 1901, 1905; Segall,
Campbell, & Herskovits, 1963; Sherif, 1935; Tresselt, 1948; Woodworth,
J. McV. Hunt has speculated that infants exposed to the crowded
conditions of lower-class slums may not be handicapped by the diversity
and level of visual and auditory inputs during the first year of life but that
during the second year,
lower-class mothers provided less^ information^ for^ the^ child^ and^ less
opportunity for the child to share in planning the^ task.
It is widely belíeved that the^ parents^ or^ caretaker^ of^ a^ young^ child
are of crucial importance in^ the^ child's^ acquisition^ of^ language.^ Factors
that influence the learning process include the^ amount^ and^ nature^ of^ the
adult speech the child Iistens to, the extent^ to^ which^ the^ child's^ attempts
at speech^ are^ encouraged^ and^ corrected,^ whether^ the^ development^ of^ the
child's questioning is helped or^ hindered,^ and^ the^ quality^ and^ quantity^ of
adult speech. If the young child spends little time^ with^ adults^ and^ learns
speech more from^ older^ brothers^ and^ sisters^ or^ other^ children,^ the^ speech
he learns from will be more rudimentary than^ adult^ speech.^ M.^ Deutsch
(in A. H.^ Passew,^ 1963),^ studying^ the^ nature^ of^ conversation^ between^ adults
in middle- and lower-class families,^ has^ found^ that^ sustained conversation
in lower-class homes is far shorter. Studies^ by^ Bernstein^ (1965),^ of
middle- and lower-class language^ usage^ by^ British^ children^ show^ that
lower-class children use far less complex^ patterns^ of^ speech,^ short,
grammatically simple,^ often^ unfinished^ sentences,^ and^ less^ conceptual
language. Although their vocabulary may^ be^ quite^ rich^ expressively,^ it^ is
not the vocabulary likely to^ be^ encountered^ among^ teachers^ in^ school,^ (K.
Eells et al,^ 1951).^ Y.^ P.^ John^ and^ L.^ S.^ Goldstein^ (Merrill-Palmer
Quarterly, July 1964), in examining social^ conditions^ that^ affect^ language
acquisition are^ studying^ "....^ the^ gradual^ shift^ in^ the^ child's^ use^ of^ words,
from labeling specific and often single referents^ to^ the^ use^ of^ words^ for
signifying categories of objects, actions,^ or^ attributes"^.^ They^ hypothesize
f
"... that the rate and breadth of this shift varies from one social context to
another, and that it has differential consequences for cognitive development
dependent on the social context in which it occurs". Nisbett (1953), has
carefully reviewed ".. the slight but definitely established tendency for
intelligent children to be found in small families and dull children in large
families. " This tendency persists even when such factors as parents'
occupation or overcrowding in the home have been controlled for. He
believes the results in part may be explained b; "... the environmental
influence of the size of the family on verbal ability and through it on
general mental development."
Although the influences of an impoverished social en vironment
on oral discrimination and speech development is a major issue now under
investigation, there is also interest in what influences the development of
visual and motor sensory skills. In impoverished homes, there is likely to
be an absence or paucity of toys and especially the kinds of objects which
will be encountered later in schools--pencil and paper, crayons, blocks,
modeling clay, etc. The home and immediate environment in slum areas
is less likely to have a wide variety of pictures and books, and the child is
less likely to be taken to a variety of environments beyond his home and its
immediate surroundings. In a survey, as yet unpublished, of reading ability
for the total population of 7- to 12-year-old children in Aberdeen, Scotland,
we have found that reading test performance of children whose fathers are
manual workers is poorer than that of children whose fathers have nonmanual
g
...they As are minority-group assigned and observechildren thatlearn they^ the areinferior usually^ status segregated^ to^ which and isolatedreact with from desp the feelings more privileged of inferiority^ members and^ of withtheir a^ society,sense of^ personalthey humiliation.worth. Like allMany other of themhuman become beings, confused they requireabout theira sense own ofpersonal personal dignityin the largerand social society, support however, for positivedo we find self-esteem. Almost their own dignity nowhereas grouphuman beingschildren^ respected develop^ orconflicts^ protected. with^ Underregard^ these to theirconditions, feelings^ minority- about themselvesidentified.... and aboutThese theconflicts, values ofconfusions, the group andwith doubts which givethey riseare underown group. certain circumstances to self-hatred and rejection of their oftenMinority-group react to their^ childrengroup conflicts^ of^ all^ socialby the^ and adoption^ economic of aclasses generally defeatist attitude and a lowering of personal ambition
There are some specific^ skills^ expected^ of^ children^ in^ school^ by the teachers, who^ predominantly^ are^ middle-class^ in^ their^ orientation^ and values. They expect the children to have good time-sense, to know how to approach a task in an orderly manner, to be able to^ pay^ attention^ to^ them. But many of the children from lowsocial-class backgrounds^ have^ received^ little training in developing a sense of time, in approaching tasks^ in^ a^ systematic orderly manner, and in carrying through and completing a task within prescribed time limits. Their parents have generally not been good examples or role models for developing these skills and values. The children have^ had^ little^ experience in listening to sustained adult talk, particularly middle-class speech patterns. Because they live in crowded and noisy homes, they may,^ in^ fact,^ have^ learned to be inattentive to talk. Studies of schools have shown that reading and other textbooks used generally portray^ scenes^ of^ upper-^ and^ middle-class^ suburban and rural life, and there is considerable evidence that the various standard aptitude tests^ discriminate^ against^ lower-class^ children^ by^ the^ selection^ of items which include words, scenes, and events with which lower-class children
have little or no familiarity. Teachers live (^) in a social milieu and set of conditions very different from those of the deprived child and have generally learned the middle-class set of values. They have had little experience of the day-to-day conditions (^) in which the child lives and little understanding of his behavior. Furthermore, not only may their expectations and demands be unmeetable by the deprived child but his failure to meet them may well (^) be interpreted as evidence of poor heredity and a low and fixed level of intelligence. On the basis of this interpretation, teachers may feel that there is little (^) they can do, and hence they may adopt a defeatist attitude.
Possibly one of the factors most damaging to self-esteem is failure to live up to the expectations and demands of others. The (^) widespread evidence of poorer performance (^) by lower-class children suggests a frequency of such failure which may kill any early (^) interest the child may have had in school and cause him to seek his successes (^) and satisfaction with his peers, with whom in general he has far more contact, (^) and te seek less contact with adults than the middle-class child enjoys.
The segregation of the deprived child along class, racial, and ethnic lines frequently occurs not only in his (^) home environment but also in his school. Almost all his social and learning (^) experiences, with the exception of his teachers, the mass media, and occasional brief encounters with middle-class (^) people, reinforce the norms and values of his subculture and cumulate behavior patterns which increasingly make it difficult for
