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CHAPTER 1
ADJUSTING TO MODERN LIFE
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
1-1: Provide examples of people’s search for direction in their lives, and analyze the value of self-help books (APA Goals 4, 5, 6).
1-2: Describe the two key facets of psychology, and explain the concept of adjustment (APA Goal 1).
1-3: Explain the nature of experimental and correlational research, and evaluate the advantages of each approach (APA Goals 2, 3).
1-4: Review information on the factors that are and are not predictive of subjective well-being (APA Goals 5, 9).
1-5: Discuss some strategies for improving study habits, note taking, reading comprehension, and memory (APA Goal 4).
CHAPTER OUTLINE
1-1. The Search for Direction
- Technological advances have not led to perceptible improvement in collective health and happiness
- The basic challenge of modern life has become the search for meaning, direction, and personal philosophy
- "Self-realization" programs a. Experts characterize many of these programs as intellectually bankrupt b. Most are harmless scams that may give an illusory sense of purpose or temporary boost in self-confidence c. Some of these programs are even harmful, for example, the fatal "spiritual warrior" retreat
1-1a. Self-help books
- The value of self-help books a. Some excellent books offer authentic insights and sound advice b. But many books offer little real value to the reader
- Main shortcomings of self-help books a. Dominated by "psychobabble" b. Advice provided is generally not based on solid, scientific research c. Usually don't provide explicit directions about how to change behavior d. Many of the books encourage a self-centered approach to life, or narcissism, a personality trait marked by an inflated sense of importance, a need for attention and admiration, a sense of entitlement, and a tendency to exploit others
- What to look for in self-help books a. No promises of immediate change c. Check the credentials of the authors yourself d. A theoretical foundation or research basis for their program e. Explicit directions about how to change behavior f. Focus on a particular topic rather than many topics
1-1b. The approach of this textbook
- A summary of relevant scientific research
- Covers same topics addressed in self-help books and self-realization programs
- Behavior change is challenging, but possible without consulting a psychologist
- Provides useful information
- The rest is up to the reader
1-3b. Correlational Research: Looking for Links
- Correlation : a correlation exists when two variables are related to each other
- Measuring correlation a. Correlation coefficient : a numerical index of the degree of relationship that exists between two variables b. Kinds of relationships 1) Positive correlation 2) Negative correlation c. Strength of the relationship 1) The absolute value of the correlation coefficient indicates the strength of the relationship 2) Thus, the closer the correlation coefficient is to either -1.00 or +1.00, the stronger the relationship is 3) Correlation coefficients near zero indicate little or no relationship between the variables
- Naturalistic observation a. Naturalistic observation: a researcher engages in careful observation of behavior without intervening directly with the subjects b. Method is naturalistic because behavior is allowed to occur naturally
- Case studies a. Case study : an in-depth investigation of an individual subject b. Generally used in clinical settings to diagnose and treat a psychological problem c. A single case study does not provide basis for general laws of behavior; however, with a number of case studies, researchers can look for themes
- Surveys a. Surveys : structured questionnaires designed to solicit information about specific aspects of participants’ behavior b. Frequently used to study attitudes and other aspects of behavior that are difficult to observe directly
- Advantages and disadvantages of correlational research methods a. Main advantage is that they can be used to explore questions that cannot be examined with experimental procedures. b. Main disadvantage is that correlational research cannot be used to demonstrate cause-and-effect relationships between variables. Can only conclude that variables are related.
1-4. The Roots of Happiness: An Empirical Analysis
- Subjective well-being : individual's personal assessments of overall happiness or life satisfaction
1-4a. What isn't very important?
- Money
a. Correlation between income and subjective feeling of happiness is positive, but surprisingly weak b. On average, wealthy people are only marginally happier than the middle classes
- Age a. Factors influencing well-being may shift as grow older, but remarkably stable over life span
- Parenthood a. Good and bad of parenthood balance each other out.
- Intelligence and attractiveness. a. Valued traits but no association between either characteristic and happiness.
1-4b. What is somewhat important?
- Health
- Social activity
- Religion
1-4c. What is very important?
- Love, marriage, and relationship satisfaction
- Work
- Genetics and personality a. Best predictor of future happiness is past happiness b. Personality correlates of happiness include self-esteem, extraversion, and optimism c. Studies suggest that genetic predispositions account for a substantial portion of the variance in happiness (about 50%)
1-4d. Conclusions
- Because most of the data are correlational, we must be cautious in drawing inferences about the causes of happiness
- But some general conclusions can be drawn a. Objective realities are not as important as subjective feelings. b. When it comes to happiness, everything is relative c. People are surprisingly bad at predicting what will make them happy. We assume that we know what is best for us. But research on affective forecasting —efforts to predict one’s emotional reactions to future events—suggests otherwise d. People often adapt to their circumstances. Hedonic adaptation : occurs when the mental scale that people use to judge the pleasantness-unpleasantness of their experience shifts so that their neutral point, or baseline, for comparison is changed
1-5. Application: Improving Academic Performance
1-5a. Developing sound study habits
- Set up a schedule for studying
- Find a place to study where you can concentrate
- Reward your studying
1-5b. Improving your reading
- Keys to improving reading
(QFDs): QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION
Why are self-help books so popular? List any self-help books that you have read. How helpful did you find these books to be? Did they have (or lack) any of the qualities listed in the chapter under what to look for in self-help books? (LO1-1)
Has anyone you know been enthusiastic about a self-improvement program that you felt was worthless? Do you think this person might have experienced a placebo effect? (LO1-1; APA Goals 1, 3, 4 )
Adjustment involves the psychological processes through which people manage or cope with the demands and challenges of everyday life. What is one simple challenge you faced today, such as getting to class on time? What are all the coping behaviors that it took to meet this everyday challenge? (LO1-2; APA Goals 4, 9 )
This chapter defines psychology. How does the chapter’s description of psychology vary from your initial impression of what psychology is or what psychologists do? (LO1-2; APA Goals 1, 5, 7 )
Empiricism is the premise that knowledge should be gathered through observation. However, this type of scientific observation is different than relying on one's own personal observations of life. Can you explain how so? (LO1-3; APA Goals 2, 3, 5 )
If you were a psychological researcher, what types of research methods would you prefer to use, such as experimental research, correlational, naturalistic observation, case studies, or surveys? How might the choice of method depend on the research topic? (LO1-3; APA Goals 2, 3 )
Can you recall any correlations reported recently in the news? (Hint: a common example correlates some variable with various aspects of health). Was the correlation positive or negative? What are the various possible causal relationships related to this correlation? (LO1-3; APA Goals 2, 3, 4 )
Although there is only a weak correlation between income and feelings of happiness, many people do believe that having more money will make them happy. Why do you think this is? (LO1-4; APA Goals 3, 4, 7, 9 )
Have you tried any of the study techniques suggested in the textbook? If so, did these techniques seem to work for you? Do you use study techniques other than those discussed in the textbook? (LO1-5; APA Goals 4, 9 )
Why do you think it is that so many students fail to use effective study techniques? (LO1-5; APA Goals 4, 7, 9 )
DEMONSTRATIONS AND ACTIVITIES
The Self-Help Book Review ( LO1-1; APA Goals 3, 5): Have your students do a book review or critique of a popular self-help book. Students can present (either orally or in writing) a report that addresses a discussion of the shortcomings, as well as the positive contributions of the book, with an emphasis on the criteria discussed in the text for judging the quality of these books. Given the time and effort involved, this activity could be done as a term project, and students could present their conclusions during the last week or two of the term. Three to five students working together can also do the activity as a group project. Handout 1.1 may be used as a guide to facilitate this assignment.
Get to Know the Expert (APA Goals 1, 3, 6, 7): Assign students individually or in small groups to research the background of one of the following advice-giving experts. Ask the students to try to be objective. Have them list the training and qualities of the expert that would support the view that the expert would be a good source of information and support, and have them also list the qualities that would lead them to question the authority of the expert. Stress to students that they need to look carefully at the actual qualifications and quality of the advice that these "experts" provide. Have each student or group deliver a five-minute summary of findings to the class. Here is a list of possible subjects for background research; you may know of others, local to you or nationally known, who would make good subjects as well.
Dr. Laura (Laura Schlessenger) Dr. Joyce Brothers Dear Abby (Abigail Van Buren) Ann Landers Dr. Phil (Philip McGraw) John Gray (author of Men Are from Mars, Women Are from Venus ) Dr. James Dobson
The Psychologist as Scientist ( LO1-3; APA Goals 2, 3): Smith (1982) developed an exercise that can be used to illustrate the fact that people generally do not view psychology as a scientific discipline. First, ask your students to list five traits that are typical of a scientist. Then ask the students to list five traits that are typical of a psychologist. You can have your students share their descriptions with the class or collect the papers and read the descriptions yourself. Typically, the difference between the two sets of adjectives is striking; students generally see little similarity between the two terms. At this point, you can discuss the scientific basis of psychology and the emphasis in psychology on the empirical approach to studying behavior.
Smith, G.F. (1982). Introducing psychology majors to clinical bias through the adjective generation technique. Teaching of Psychology, 9, 238-239.
Science versus Non-Science in Psychological Research ( LO1-1, 1-3; APA Goals 1, 2, 3): Ward and Grasha (1986) described an exercise that can be used to demonstrate the scientific approach and to introduce students to some of the basic terminology in psychological research. First, ask students familiar with astrology to suggest the assumptions they think astrologists make about human behavior. These responses generally focus on how astrologists assume that the position of the stars and planets influence our personalities and behavior. After a brief discussion of the nature of science, non-science, and the scientific method, place the students in small groups and ask them to generate a hypothesis based on an assumption they believe astrologists make about human behavior. If students have not mentioned it, you should suggest a hypothesis based on the assumption that our personalities are associated with certain zodiac signs. Then have the class test the accuracy of this hypothesis.
examples of experiments from which students are asked to identify the independent and dependent variables, and control and experimental groups. This worksheet may be completed by the class as a whole, in small groups, or by individual students. Expect that students will have questions about this material, even if they did not have questions during lecture. In follow-up discussion, you might ask the students how they think the results would turn out for each experiment; use this discussion as an opportunity to remind students that the only way to answer the questions empirically would be to actually complete the experiments in a properly controlled manner. Follow-up discussion might also cover additional aspects of experimental methods, such as extraneous variables, double-blind procedures, and ethical considerations.
ANSWERS for Handout 1.3 (correct wording may vary) 1a. Color of room 1b. Recovery time 1c. Patients are assigned to white room 1d. Patients are assigned to yellow room
2a. Type of textbook/math program 2b. Scores on a standardized geometry test 2c. Students use traditional textbooks 2d. Students use special textbooks
3a. Type of writing exercise 3b. Symptoms of PTSD 3c. Clients write ordinary journal entries 3d. Clients write “reflectional” writing exercises
4a. Medication 4b. Performance on memory test 4c. Individuals consume placebo pill 4d. Individuals consume pill containing herbal supplement
5a. Type of reward program 5b. Morale and productivity 5c. Employees receive standard reward program 5d. Employees receive frequent small rewards
Identifying Types of Research ( LO1-3; APA Goals 2, 3, 6): Find a series of abstracts from published research that represent a variety of research types. It can be of use to choose research along a common theme (such as a particular psychological disorder or issue) to help students to see the diversity of research methods within a common area of inquiry. Abstracts are easily found online through sites such as Google Scholar (http://scholar.google.com/) or likely your institution’s library databases. Choose a variety of abstracts so that you will be able to guide students in identifying the following concepts:
-Experimental research (including independent and dependent variables, experimental and control groups) -Correlational results (both positive and negative) -Naturalistic observation -Case study -Survey
“What Makes You Happy?” ( LO1-4; APA Goals 4, 5, 7, 9): Have students list, in rank order, three to five factors that they think are important in their own happiness. Then, look over the lists before the next class meeting and prepare a summary of the factors that were cited most often by the students, in essence creating your own rank order of factors for the entire class. This exercise is useful as a springboard to a discussion of the subjective nature of happiness (or subjective well- being, as it is often referred to by social scientists). Additionally, the factors listed by the students can be compared to those identified by researchers (and discussed in the textbook) as being important determinants of happiness. As suggested in the textbook, many commonsense notions about happiness appear to be inaccurate when examined from an empirical standpoint.
Active Learning ( LO1-5; APA Goals 1, 4, 9) : As pointed out in "Application: Improving Academic Performance," many college students do not make use of effective study techniques. They often engage in passive strategies like skimming over the textbook or their notes rather than more active strategies. DeRosa (1987) designed an exercise, based on the levels of processing notion that shows students the value of active learning.
To do the exercise, you need two lists of words, such as those below this description
Ask the students to rate the words that you read to them, using a 10-point scale of pleasantness, with 1 being very unpleasant and 10 being very pleasant. Ask them to concentrate on the task of rating the pleasantness of each word. Then read the words from List A at 5-second intervals. After finishing the list, wait for about one minute and then have the students recall as many words from the list as they can. When they have finished, you should go through List A again and have the students record the number of words they correctly recalled.
For List B, have students note the number of occurrences of the letter e in each word as you read through the list. If there is no e , they should skip the line. Again, you should ask them to concentrate on the task of counting every e. Read the words at 5-second intervals, wait for about one minute, and then have the students record their scores.
If you think that recalling the first list will give students a cue for performance on the second list, you could divide the class in half and give each half different instructions (i.e., rating pleasantness or counting every e ) on a piece of paper. Another variation is to record the scores only after both lists have been read.
You will invariably find that students recall more words from the list that they process more actively (pleasantness ratings). Hyde and Jenkins (1969) found that participants recalled about twice as many of the words rated for pleasantness, regardless of whether the purpose of the task was stated ahead of time or not. Students are typically very impressed that they "learned" so many more words merely by processing them more actively.
List A List B coin skate shade desk church fork money pitch trunk pocket garden hammer trail flower dress horse clock bank month door paint time belt train deep bird count fire sample move song bureau rain pipe foot magic fish coat short motor
concepts as unethical behavior, independent and dependent variables, random selection, avoiding bias, and graphing to evaluate results. Insight Media, 2002, 20 minutes.
Non-Experimental Research Methods in Psychology ( LO1-3; APA Goals 2, 4, 9). Presents non-experimental research methods—questionnaires, interviews, and naturalistic observation— through three studies on the effects of cell phone use. Films for the Humanities and Sciences, 2006, 34 minutes.
Psychology Research in Context ( LO1-3; APA Goals 1, 5). This program clarifies selected principles of science by contextualizing them through easily comprehensible applications of psychological research. Films for the Humanities and Sciences, 2008, 28 minutes.
Why Study Human Behavior (APA Goal 5). Introducing the science of behavior and mental processes, this video examines the scope of the field of psychology by explaining the value of understanding why people think and act the way they do. Insight Media, 2001, 30 minutes.
CENGAGE LEARNING VIDEOS
Research Methods Can Be Fun , Joanne Altman. Clip 60, Wadsworth Guest Lecture Series.
Showing Students How to Think Like Scientists , Joanne Altman. Clip 59, Wadsworth Guest Lecture Series.
The Important Goals in Psychology , Bill Swoap. Clip 37, Wadsworth Guest Lecture Series.
Tricks for Teaching Research Methods , Missa Murray Eaton. Clip 4, Wadsworth Guest Lecture Series.
HELPFUL WEBSITES
American Psychological Association ( LO1-1; 1-4; APA Goals 1, 4, 9). The homepage for the American Psychological Association (APA) includes links to various areas related to psychology and its professional specialties. Its coverage of various psychological topics can be a useful reference for introducing psychology as a broad and diverse profession. http://www.apa.org/
Association for Psychological Science ( LO1-3; 1-5; APA Goals 1, 2, 3, 10). The homepage for the Association for Psychological Science (APS) includes links to various areas related to psychological science in general and an emphasis on empirical research. The site is frequently updated with news of recent research findings in psychology. http://www.psychologicalscience.org/
The Basics of Effective Learning ( LO1-5; APA Goals 4, 9). This webpage provides a summary of strategy for effective learning by college students, enhanced with many links to additional sites. http://www.bucks.edu/~specpop/studyskills.htm
The Encyclopedia of Psychology ( LO1-1, 1-2, 1-3, 1-4, 1-5; APA Goal 1). This resource for introducing students to all aspects of the science provides an easy way to search for specific topics related to the current body of psychological knowledge. However, it is worth differentiating between secondary and primary sources for students. http://www.psychology.org/
Methods for Behavioral Research ( LO1-3; APA Goals 2, 3, 4, 9). For your ambitious and curious students, this eBook has a great deal of detailed and current information on research designs, their strengths, and their weaknesses. http://methods.fullerton.edu/noframesindex.html
Quackwatch ( LO1-1; 1-3; 1-4; APA Goals 3, 4, 5, 9). An enormously helpful website, updated frequently, with the latest information on helpful, harmful, and useless therapies and treatments. http://www.quackwatch.com
ScienceDaily Psychology News ( LO1-3; APA Goals 1, 2, 4). Updated daily, this site provides press-release-style summaries of recently published research. http://www.sciencedaily.com/news/mind_brain/psychology/
Scientific American: Mind and Brain ( LO1-3; APA Goals 1, 2, 4). Recent stories from the field of psychology and related disciplines appear on this webpage. http://www.scientificamerican.com/mind-and-brain
Skeptic's Dictionary ( LO1-1; 1-3; 1-4; APA Goal 3). “A Collection of Strange Beliefs, Amusing Deceptions, and Dangerous Delusions (and how to think critically about them)” includes reference to empirical investigation of areas of self-help, parapsychology, and pseudopsychology. http://www.skepdic.com/
Study Skills Self-Help Information ( LO1-5; APA Goals 4, 9). This site, located at Virginia Tech, has information about study skills. http://www.ucc.vt.edu/stdysk/stdyhlp.html
