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PART 1
BEGINNINGS
- Introduction Defining Development o The science of human development Seek to understand how and why people change over Something that is empirical based on observations, repeated experiences, and verifiable experiments. It is not theoretical. Scientific methods the way to answer questions using empirical researched and database conclusions. 5 lifespan perspective o Development is multidimensional and multidirectional Overtime human Characteristics change in every direction Several major theorist describe stages of development: Freud, Erickson, plaget Others view development as a continuous process Discontinuity and Continuity o Discontinuity Puberty o Development is multi contextual (Context and History) Ecological systems approach Urie Bronfenbenner Historical context. All persons born within a few years of one another are said to be cohort, a group defined by the shared age of its members Socioeconomic context Income Education Location Age Gender Occupation
o Development is multicultural Culture Patterns of behavior or based from one generation to the next Vygotsky described the interaction between culture and education o Development is multidisciplinary Studied by many disciplines such as: Psychologist Sociologist Anthologist Neurologist Medical researchers o Development is plastic No main traits can be molded, yet people maintaining certain durability of identity (as plastic can). Plasticity – capacity to change in response to both positive and negative experiences
For example, formal schooling increases a child's knowledge base and develops their cognitive abilities but also restricts their creativity as they learn to follow rules defined by others. o Development is plastic Plasticity refers to the within-person variability which is possible for a particular behavior or development. For example, infants who have a hemisphere of the brain removed shortly after birth (as a treatment for epilepsy) can recover the functions associated with that hemisphere as the brain reorganizes itself and the remaining hemisphere takes over those functions. A key part of the research agendas in developmental psychology is to understand the nature and the limits of plasticity in various domains of functioning. o Development is also situated in contexts and in history Development varies across the different contexts in which we live our lives. For example, social and rural environments are associated with different sets of factors which have the potential to impact on development; Development is also historically situated; that is, the historical time period in which we grow up affects our development. Scientific Method o Curiosity o Develop hypothesis o Test the hypothesis o Draw conclusions o Report the results o Replication: The repetition of a study, using different participants
Cognitive: Ask questions of children and analyze unexpected answers Psychoanalytic: Analyzed dreams and case studies of Adults in order to uncover hidden drives. Behaviorism: Conduct experiments with animals to understand learning. o Psychoanalytic - examining and careful detail of the mind to discover the unconscious desires that often originate in childhood to development one’s human behavior. Sigmund Freud 1856- developed the psychoanalytic theory about development Believed that development centered around sensual stimulation, feelings and emotions. The five stages described development from birth to adulthood are: o Oral stage (BirthOral Birth--1 Year) Sucking and Feeding are the actions represented by the mouth. o Anal stage (1Anal 1--3 Years) Awareness of the anatomical body parts. Toilet training. o Phallic stage (3Phallic 3--6 Years) Genital Stimulation Genital Stimulation o Latency o Genital stage includes potential conflicts conflicts—how a person resolves the conflicts determines their personality and behavior Difficulty with any of the tasks associated with the stages can result in retaining certain infantile or childish habits. This is called fixation. Example::Too strict toilet training may create an “anal retentive” personality. This individual is especially clean, perfectionist, and very stubborn. “The Monk” Erik Erikson student of Freud (1902-1994) Described 8 developmental stages each characterized by a challenging developmental crisis His first 5 stages build on Freud’s theory, but he also described 3 adult stages
Erikson developed stages that closely are related to Freud’s but utilize social behaviors rather than sensual behaviors o Behavioral/Behaviorism/ Overt Behavior Behaviorism or “learning theory” is how one develops step by step. Watson, an early behaviorist, believed that Freud and other psychoanalytic theorists needed data, observable facts to lay the foundation of development. A theory of human development that studies observable behavior Also called learning theory as it describes the laws and processes by which behavior is learned
In both of these cases of reinforcement, the behavior increases. o Punishment, on the other hand, is the presentation of an adverse event or outcome that causes a decrease in the behavior it follows. There are two kinds of punishment: Positive punishment, sometimes referred to as punishment by application, involves the presentation of an unfavorable event or outcome in order to weaken the response it follows. Negative punishment, also known as punishment by removal, occurs when an favorable event or outcome is removed after a behavior occurs. In both of these cases of punishment, the behavior decreases. o Social Learning Theory The effect or influence others have over our behavior. Observation: how we learn o Modeling: People observe and copy some of the traits different from imitation (direct copying). o Self Efficacy: Success is due to one’s self or ability. o Cognitive Theory Structure and development of the thought process. Information Processing Theory Theory- focused on the step by step activation of various parts of the brain, from initial sensory awareness all the way to sophisticated analysis and exposition. Jean Piaget developed a thesis of cognitive theory: How children think changes with time and experience, and these thought processes always affect behavior.
Equilibrium-mental balance Disequilibrium Disequilibrium-mental unbalance 2 Ways to adapt/Cognitive adaptation: o Assimilation: new experiences to fit in with old ones. new experiences are interpreted to fit into,or assimilate with, old ideas o Accommodation: old ideas are restructured to include or accommodate new experiences old ideas are restructured to include, or accommodate, new experiences If threatened, how do we achieve equilibrium again? o Example Example: A 10 month old learns that a red ball bounces. If given a blue ball, he will bounce it too (assimilation). If given a red tomato (which looks like a red ball), he may try to bounce it. He needs to accommodate his schema of round, red things. Thoughts and expectations profoundly affect action Focuses on changes in how people think overtime Jean Piaget (1896-1980) Cognitive Equilibrium o A state of mental balance no confusion o Interpret new ideas through past ideas o Needed for intellectual advancement o Easy equilibrium not always possible o If new experience is not understandable cognitive disequilibrium can occur o Skinner o Cognitive – John and Erickson
o Take the example of a drug addict. Due to the continued use of a drug, they become genetically addicted. The continued use causes the brain to be hypersensitive to the drug. The outcome of the interaction of genes and environment. o Genetic Adaptation Selective adaptation: genes for the traits that are most useful will become more frequent, thus making survival of species more likely. Example: Humans have genes that foster language language– those may have helped us avoid lethal diseases. Developmental Theories o Eclectic perspective perspective - apply aspects of each of the various theories of development rather than relying on just one. o What effect has studying various developmental theories had on your idea of human development? Which theory best fits your perception of the stages of growth and development? Psychosomatic o A theory of human development that holds that irrational, unconscious drives and motives, often originating in childhood, underlie human behavior Social Learning Theory: Albert Bandura (b 1925) o An extension of behaviorism that emphasizes the influence that other people have over a person’s behavior o Modeling people learn by observing other people and then copyrighting them o Self-Efficacy – how effective people think they are when it comes to changing themselves or altering their social context The nature – Nurture Debate o Nature refers to the influence of genes which we inherit o Nurture refers to environmental influences such as: Health and diet of embryo’s mother Family School Community Society o The real question is HOW MUCH influence each has, and how they interact.
- Heredity and Environment What Genes are? Cells: working units of every living system. Nucleus: Heart of the cell that contains DNAthat DNA
DNA (Deoxyribonucleic acid) o Molecule that contains the chemical instructions for cells to manufacture various proteins o Promotes growth and sustains life o chemical physical components that give exact instructions required to create a particular organism with its own unique traits. Chromosomes: o Molecules of DNA o DNA consists of 46 chromosomes arranges in 23 pairs o Molecule of DNA that give the instructions to make protein in order for humans to get their basic needs. (23 pairs) o Proteins: perform most life functions and even make up the majority of cellular structures. Genes o Specific sections of a chromosomes carry instructions via four chemicals o Each person has about 3 billion pairs o basic physical and functional units of hereditaryhereditary Genomes: complete set of an organisms DNAan DNA Protein Production o Sperm Ovum (Egg) Genetic Foundations o Chromosomes Rodlike structures which stores and transmit genetic information o The Genetic Code Chromosomes are made up of a chemical substance called DNA Gene: a segment of DNA along the length of the chromosomes Mitosis: A unique feature of DNA where it can duplicate itself through process Gametes Reproductive cells (sperm and oval) Each consists of 23 chromosomes Meiosis Gametes are formed through a cell division ½ the number of chromosomes normally present in the body cells
A pattern of inheritance in which both alleles are expressed, resulting in a combined trait, or one that is intermediate between the two o Genetic Imprinting: Alleles are imprinted or chemically marked, in such a way that one member of the pair is activated o Mutation: A sudden change in a segment of DNA o Polygenic Inheritance: Many genes influence the characteristics in question o Chromosomal Abnormalities Down Sysndrome The failure of 21st^ chromosomes during meiosis, the individual inherits 3 chromosomes instead of 2 Abnormalities of sex chromosomes The presence of extra chromosomes (X or Y) or the absence of 1 x in females Genetic Counseling: a communication process designed to help couple asses their chances of giving birth to a baby with a hereditary disorder and choose the best course of action in view of risks and family goals Prenatal Diagnosis and Fetal Medicine o Prenatal Diagnostic Methods: Medical procedures that permit detection of problems before birth o o Genetic Testing: scanning individual’s DNA for mutation o
The Beginnings of Life o Conception occurs when the sperm penetrates the egg (ovum). These two types of reproductive cells are known as gametes. o The path the sperm travels to produce conception is: vagina, cervix, uterus, fallopian tube, and final destination, ovum. o The actual penetration of the sperm to the egg produces the first organism called the zygote. o The formation of the cell is unique and begins to develop certain traits or characteristics from both the mom mom’s 23 chromosome pairs and dad s dad’s 23 chromosome pairs, genotype. o Genotype o Genes on chromosomes that constitute the organism’s genetic inheritance o The complex blend of genetic information that determines our species and influences all our unique characteristics o Phenotype o The observable characteristics of a person including appearance personality, intelligence, and all other traits o Intimately connected with genotype o is a person’s physical characteristics, personality or temperament. These characteristics are observable. o Development Duplication and Division begin to occur once the zygote is forme formed. From D&D, differentiation begins to take place. The zygote begins to develop specialized features. For example, Gottlieb, 2002, stat states that “We are sitting with parts of our body that could have been used for thinking”. The next phase resulting from differentiation is cells developin developing into one part of the body, ex. a nose or a finger. There is no turning b back for that particular cell. Once it has its genetic information to become that body part it won’t suddenly change into something else. The genes that are responsible for on on-off switching have a lifelong operation. These are partly maturational and experienced based. Keep in mind that the genotype and phenotype work hand in hand to create our human make up. Recall Epigenesis Epigenesis-interaction of genes and environment. Is is possible for a child regardless of SES to be raised to become a Doctor, Lawyer or Engineer? How? o Gene Gene-Gene Interactions o The combination of gene inherited traits from both parents result in traits passed down to their offspring. o This combination is complex and involves many genes known as “polygenic” as well as many influences by genetics as well as the environment known as “multifactorial”. o Types of Gene Gene-Gene interaction o Additive Genes: interact with other genes to produce the phenotype. What is the probability that a 5’3 woman and a 6’4 man will produce a child that is over 6’0 feet tall? Example Example: HEIGHT. The inherited genes from mother and from father are added together. However, some additive genes get enhanced by other genes, making their input greater.
o Researchers have employed several methods (e.g., twin studies, adoption studies) to investigate the relative influence and interaction of genes and environment in shaping human behavior and traits. o Findings from the Research Genes affect every aspect of human behavior. The non non-shared environment of families is powerful. Genes elicit responses from other people that shape development (an indirect effect). Gene Interactions Genes have been found to contribute to three examples of complex traits. o Psychopathology Mental illness Depression Antisocial behavior Phobias Compulsions Schizophrenia has been the result of gene gene- gene and gene gene-enviroment interation interation. Gene Gene-gene: 30 genes are linked to this brain dysfunction Gene - environment:virus, head injury, inadequate oxygen at birth o Ex. Genain quadruplets o Addiction - Researchers have studied the effects of Alcoholism and have learned: Children who have never consumed alcohol have similar brain patterns to their alcoholic parent. Biochemical make make-up can influence the effects of drinking. Environment has a strong influence on your behavior. o Visual Acuity - is affected by age. Newborns cannot focus more than 2feet away Adolescence brings a change to eyeball shape Adulthood vision gradually improves, late middle age, elasticity of the lense decreases Elderly or the Matured Adult needs reading glasses. Blindness affects 10 percent toward the end of life. Practical Applications o Being aware of one’s inherited genetic make make-up. o Developing protective measures to address, decrease any type of genetic disorder. o Be Proactive o What do you now know about Type 2 Diabetes to help future generations? Chromosomal and Genetic Abnormalities
Chromosomal abnormalities occur when the zygote’s cells have fewer or more chromosomes than 46. Maternal Age is the most common contributor of chromosomal abnormalities. Due to egg production during our midlife years. Most common is Down Syndrome (Trisomy Trisomy-21). o o Dominant Disorders The effects are seen in the phenotype. Huntington’s disease is a fatal CNS disorder caused by a genetic miscode. It is inactive until middle adulthood. Tourette syndrome, a dominant disorder, can lead to uncontrollable tics and obscenities. o Recessive Conditions A Few recessive conditions are sex sex-linked. For example, Fragile X syndrome and hemophilia. More prominent in males than females. Why? o Genetic Counseling Genetic counseling provides facts. It is recommended for:
