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Psych 235 Unit 3 Exam questions and answers already passed-32.docx, Exams of Nursing

University of OxfordNursing

Psych 235 Unit 3 Exam questions and answers already passed-32.docx

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Psych 235 Unit 3 Exam questions and
answers already passed
Predation should be a very strong source of __________. - correct answer ✔✔Natural Selection
Predation should favor evolution of behavioral or other traits that enable animals to prevent
themselves from __________. - correct answer ✔✔Being killed and eaten
What different strategies can prey animals use to avoid being eaten? (ANTIPREDATOR
BEHAVIOR) - correct answer ✔✔1. Limit ability of predators to DETECT them (limiting detection
probability)
2. If they are detected, they can REDUCE PROBABILITY THEY WILL BE EATEN even if they are
found by a predator (reducing consumption probability)
What are the multiple ways to reduce ability of predators to DETECT prey? - correct answer
✔✔1. Active camouflage
2. Disruptive coloration
3. Background Matching
4. Being different from others (polymorphism)
Active Camouflage - correct answer ✔✔the ability to manipulate your pattern/color directly to
match environment
Disruptive Coloration - correct answer ✔✔- Prevents Perception of the outline/form of prey
- Stripes and spots can break up animal's outline/form
- Differs from camouflage because not necessarily matching the background but breaking up
outline/form against background
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Download Psych 235 Unit 3 Exam questions and answers already passed-32.docx and more Exams Nursing in PDF only on Docsity!

Psych 235 Unit 3 Exam questions and

answers already passed

Predation should be a very strong source of __________. - correct answer ✔✔Natural Selection Predation should favor evolution of behavioral or other traits that enable animals to prevent themselves from __________. - correct answer ✔✔Being killed and eaten What different strategies can prey animals use to avoid being eaten? (ANTIPREDATOR BEHAVIOR) - correct answer ✔✔1. Limit ability of predators to DETECT them (limiting detection probability)

  1. If they are detected, they can REDUCE PROBABILITY THEY WILL BE EATEN even if they are found by a predator (reducing consumption probability) What are the multiple ways to reduce ability of predators to DETECT prey? - correct answer ✔✔1. Active camouflage
  2. Disruptive coloration
  3. Background Matching
  4. Being different from others (polymorphism) Active Camouflage - correct answer ✔✔the ability to manipulate your pattern/color directly to match environment Disruptive Coloration - correct answer ✔✔- Prevents Perception of the outline/form of prey
  • Stripes and spots can break up animal's outline/form
  • Differs from camouflage because not necessarily matching the background but breaking up outline/form against background

EXAMPLES:

  • Zebras! Disruptive patterns are characterized by high-contrast light and dark patches sometimes in a non-repetitive pattern (aka stripes on a zebra)
  • Used by predators like tigers, leopards, cheetahs
  • Used by military background matching - correct answer ✔✔- Coloration of some prey species resembles their background
  • Should reduce detectability of prey
  • Also called "cryptic coloration"
  • Color patterns at a particular place are inconspicuous if they approximate the background EXAMPLE: Peppered moth example illustrates that background matching can be adaptive and animals can rapidly respond to environmental shifts Being Different from Others: Polymorphism - correct answer ✔✔- Polymorphism in coloration or shape can reduce the ability of predators to form "search image"
  • Background matching or disruptive coloration is not foolproof because predators can develop a search image and increase their ability to detect the prey. Polymorphism can protect against search image. Search Image in predators - correct answer ✔✔- As foragers (or predators) encounter potential food items (or prey), they develop an enhanced ability to recognize those items in the future when they are foraging (or hunting).
  • Ex. Experiment on blue jays What are ways prey can reduce probability they will be eaten even if they are found by a predator? - correct answer ✔✔- Be scary or have disposable parts
  • EXAMPLE: predator that consumes a monarch butterfly will avoid both monarchs and viceroys in the future Batesian mimicry - correct answer ✔✔- harmless species mimics a harmful one
  • one model (unpalatable), one mimic (palatable)
  • palatable prey species can IMITATE other prey species that are unpleasant tasting or poisonous to reduce their own fish of being consumed
  • mimics coloration or other features
  • The MODEL does NOT benefit and might be harmed; predator may learn that prey that look similar are in fact palatable
  • EXAMPLE: moths emits sounds that indicate to bats they are unpalatable and some other palatable species mimic the noises Is batesian mimicry common? - correct answer ✔✔Yes Co-evolution of Predators-prey - correct answer ✔✔- Both prey and predators impose natural selection upon each other (predators impose selection upon gazelles to run faster, selection favors gazelles that run faster, this in turn favors predators to run faster)
  • This is an evolutionary arms race where predators and prey co-evolve Co-evolutionary arms race in Newts and Snakes - correct answer ✔✔- Some newts are extremely toxins (enough neurotoxins to kill 10-20 humans)
  • Where they overlap, garter snakes eat newts & some individual snakes have weak of strong resistance to toxin
  • Arms race where each side (snake or newt) evolves stronger and stronger weapons resulted in extremely toxic newts and snakes that are very resistant to neurotoxins
  • Do snakes or newts win arms race? In most areas they are evenly matched, BUT in some areas snake are much more resistant to the most toxic newts.

Natal Philopatry - correct answer ✔✔When offspring remain in their place of birth and/or return to their place of birth to breed Natal Dispersal - correct answer ✔✔When offspring leave their place of birth and never return (it is permanent) Is dispersal costly? - correct answer ✔✔Yes What dangers to dispersing individuals face? - correct answer ✔✔- High energetic costs of traveling long distances

  • High risk of predation as animals travel through unfamiliar areas What are benefits of dispersal? - correct answer ✔✔Dispersers can avoid inbreeding (close relatives likely to share same recessive alleles, this increases risk of producing offspring that are homozygous for lethal recessive alleles). inbreeding avoidance hypothesis - correct answer ✔✔Dispersal is common because dispersers can avoid mating with relatives What are the fitness costs associated with inbreeding? - correct answer ✔✔- Inbred mothers are less likely to breed successfully with other males
  • Inbreeding decreases genetic diversity of offspring
  • Genetically diverse offspring should have higher fitness If you don't disperse, do you have low mating success? - correct answer ✔✔- Animals can often discriminate kin from non-kin
  • Females may be able to identify relatives and choose not to mate with them
  • If so, FEMALE MATE CHOICE could drive males to disperse
  • In North America, dragonflies migrate south in the Fall to breed & their offspring migrate north in the spring to breed Costs of Migration - correct answer ✔✔Inclement weather and predators What are human obstacles during migration? - correct answer ✔✔Birds killed by structures, hit by cars, killed by cats, etc. What can humans do with their lights to help birds during peak migration? - correct answer ✔✔Turn off outdoor lights Who was Randy Gardner? - correct answer ✔✔- record holder for the longest a human has ever gone without sleep (264 hours)
  • experienced mood swings, memory and attention lapses, loss of coordination, slurred speech, and hallucinations
  • first sleep lasted 14 hours
  • 17 years old
  • was awake from 6 am December 28th, 1963 to January 8th How do animals mitigate energetic costs of migration? - correct answer ✔✔- Accumulating fat: many migratory species accumulate fat right before migration (body mass of some bird species such as Ruby-throated hummingbird double)
  • Using stopover sites: packing on fat increases load animals have to transport, so some instead use stopover sites to refuel
  • Traveling in groups: Migratory animals can travel in groups to mitigate energetic costs of flight (flying in V formation)

Do animals adjust their migratory flight path depending upon their own body condition? - correct answer ✔✔- Yes

  • birds with low fat reserves (poor body condition) do not head south to fly over Gulf of Mexico (which is more costly because NO food)
  • instead, those in poor body condition head overland where they can stop to feed along the way
  • suggests that they adjust flight path according to body condition What are benefits of migration - correct answer ✔✔1. Energy profit (benefits minus costs)
  1. Reproductive benefits
  2. Reduction in competition, predation, or parasitism Energy profit (benefit of migration) - correct answer ✔✔- Extreme amounts of energy are required to fuel migration, but still profitable once they arrive
  • birds breeding in temperate location migrate because pulses of insects available in north and then in south during winter
  • wildebeest migration die to seasonal pulses of food follow the rains to eat green grass Reproductive benefits (benefits of migration) - correct answer ✔✔- migrating birds that breed at northern latitudes may have more food but also higher reproductive output
  • have more food to put into yourself and offspring but you also have more daylight during summer to find food and give to offspring
  • bird species that breed at higher latitudes do in fact produce more eggs and have larger clutch sizes
  • other species may migrate to specific areas to raise offspring because of the warmer temerpatures
  1. How did the behavior develop? (Its ontogeny) Why (ultimate questions)
  2. What is its adaptive significant? Effects on "fitness"?
  3. How did it evolve? What is its evolutionary/phylogenetic history? What things affect the development of behavior and the proximate mechanisms underlying behavior? - correct answer ✔✔- Genetic, neural, endocrine control of behavior
  • Early life experiences (how they affect behavior)
  • Age-related changes in behavior Nature vs Nurture & Behavior - correct answer ✔✔Behavior is a blend of nature and nurture. Depends upon trait and species. Indirect approach - correct answer ✔✔1. Correlate traits of offspring with those of parents
  • calculate "heritability" (statistical estimate of inheritance)
  1. Artificial selection, inbreeding Genomic approach - correct answer ✔✔- identify how particular genes or loci affect behavior
  • typically used in laboratory, increasingly in humans Estimating Heritability - correct answer ✔✔- Regression plots tells us h^
  • y=mx+b
  • y intercept = b, slope = m What kind of slope indicates heritability? - correct answer ✔✔Positive slope

Mary Bomberger Brown - correct answer ✔✔CLIFF SWALLOWS; Measured colony size preference for parents and offspring for many individuals over the years and used this data to estimate heritability What is resemblance among relatives caused by: - correct answer ✔✔- Shared environment

  • Shared Genes Cross-fostering - correct answer ✔✔- common tool to identify causes of resemblance among relatives
  • transfer offspring of one mother to another shortly after birth
  • allows you to identify if resemblance in some behavior among relatives is due to shared genes or shared environment
  • lake taking twins and putting them into different families Conclusions from cross-fostered chick data in Cliff Swallows - correct answer ✔✔- colony size preference persists for fostered chicks
  • fostered chicks behavior correlates to biology parents (NOT foster parents)
  • colony size preference is HERITABLE Artificial Selection - correct answer ✔✔Humans select for specific characteristics to increase the frequency of those characteristics Effect of artificial selection on behavior - correct answer ✔✔If behavior has a genetic component, we should be able to artificial selection to increase frequency of "desirable" behavior Examples of dog behavior produced by artificial selection - correct answer ✔✔Herding, Retrieving, Pointing

What gene is foraging behavior in fruit flies caused by? - correct answer ✔✔for Foraging behavior in fruit flies is cause by variation in a gene (for). What protein does for produce? This protein also affects foraging behavior in __________. - correct answer ✔✔PGK; bees Effects of regulatory genes on behavior in Drosophila (fruit flies) - correct answer ✔✔Elaborate courtship Steps of courtship in Drosophila as an effect of regulatory genes - correct answer ✔✔1. Orienting

  1. Tapping
  2. Singing
  3. Licking
  4. Copulation What is "fruitless" - correct answer ✔✔A regulatory gene that is expressed in many neurons involved in courtship behavior in fruit flies (drosophila) Males with unaltered fruitless gene & typical expression in brain (fru^c) ___________ females. - correct answer ✔✔Court Males with altered fruitless gene (fru^f) __________ females - correct answer ✔✔do not court When there was manipulated expression of fruitless in female fruit flies, what did they do? - correct answer ✔✔They acted like males and courted other females.

Expect that most behavior is caused by: - correct answer ✔✔the INTERACTION between nature (genes) and nurture (environment) Is behavior CONTROLLED by genes? - correct answer ✔✔- complex behaviors like foraging and mating behavior may have a genetic component in some species but these may be the exceptions

  • behavior is dynamic and even genetically "controlled" behavior is fixed and inflexible (like maze performance is rats)
  • The environment can modify gene expression and in turn influence behavior in a flexible manner (environment acts as the "regulator" of gene expression rather than gene like fruitless) Nature vs Nurture in rats - correct answer ✔✔- Dull rats are bred together and Bright rats are bred together
  • Rats bred to be bright make much fewer errors than the dull bred rats
  • Although, environment also affects maze performance. Rats raised in an enriched environment modifies the brain and neurons have more branches and are thicker and larger
  • Dull rats raised in an enriched environment make fewer errors than bright rats raised in a restricted environment.
  • Maze performance depends on both genotype AND environment that rats were raised in hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis - correct answer ✔✔- a body system involved in stress responses
  • Reproductive axis
  • produced androgens
  • GnRH released by hypothalamus hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis of dominant vs subordinate African Cichlid males - correct answer ✔✔Dominants have larger GnRH1 neurons in preoptic area of brain, higher GNRH1 receptors in the pituitary gland and larger testes

winner effect - correct answer ✔✔- winners of competitions tend to be more likely to win future contests

  • winning fights also causes changes in testosterone levels and in gene expression in the brain Imprinting - correct answer ✔✔- Crucial period during development ("critical periods") where animals acquire information (imprint) about themselves
  • Geese imprint upon whatever individuals they encounter during critical period (answer the question who am I?) Male birds must sing to attract and mate with females, how does this behavior develop? - correct answer ✔✔- Males have a critical period during which they learn how to sing songs typical of their species.
  • male finches need a tutor early in life
  • Young zebra finch males need to be able to hear the songs of their father to sing appropriate songs How do early life experiences shape animals? - correct answer ✔✔- Animals are learning during critical periods early in life
  • They learn who to mate with, how to sing to attract mates -They are picking up these sensory cues from their environment & these early life experiences shape the rest of their lives Is there genetic variation in imprinting? - correct answer ✔✔Yes, and this reminds us that both nature and nurture play a role Key concepts about Imprinting - correct answer ✔✔- Examples of imprint highlight how early life experiences can cause dramatic shift in behavior (who to mate with, how to sing); this can

occur in some species (not all) where they are exposed to some stimulus during a critical period (like geese and Konrad Lorenz)

  • Cross fostering studies of imprinting in two species of birds show that susceptibility to imprinting varies among species; suggests genetic differences in learning "who you are" in early life
  • Zebra finch studies and others on the development of bird song are important to understand development of complex behaviors like language; show that a gene (FOXp2) and environment affect bird song learning; if you reduce expression of FOXp2, they don't learn song as well Epigenetics - correct answer ✔✔- "Above the genome"
  • involves the alteration of gene expression without altering DNA sequence
  • Can change amount of protein produced but not type of protein produced How can the environment can affect accessibility of genes to be expressed by methylation of gene or histone modifications - correct answer ✔✔More methylated or wrapped around histones, less gene expression Epigenetic inheritance of mothering style - correct answer ✔✔- "Mothering styles" in rats is a good example of epigenetics = variation in eternal behavior laboratory rats such as licking-grooming & arch-backed nursing Hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal Axis - correct answer ✔✔the biological system responsible for the stress response (THE STRESS RESPONSE SYSTEM) How does the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis work - correct answer ✔✔- Glucocorticoids (cortisol, corticosterone) are "stress" hormones released into blood by the adrenals
  • GCs exert negative feedback on HPA axis by binding to GC receptors in brain (thermostat analogy)
  • More GC receptors you have, faster you can reduce GC levels in body
  • This is associated with reduction in GR in hippocampus
  • Similar to rat study, deprivation of care early in life has long-lasting effects on offspring due to epigenetic mechanism Inter-generation persistent of Maternal Behavior in Rats - correct answer ✔✔- Maternal behavior of daughters depended upon maternal behavior of foster mother and NOT genetic mother
  • reviewing lots of LG and ABN causes daughters to provide more LG and ARN too
  • Offspring from low LG-ABN moms cross0fostered to high LG)ABN moms (L-H) exhibited substantial reductions in cytosine methylation
  • Offspring from high LG-ABN moms cross-fostered to low LG-ABN moms (H-L) exhibited substantial increases in cytosine methylation
  • Suggests epigenetic mechanisms cause intergenerational inheritance of mothering styles
  • High LG-ABN mothers = less methylation Epigenetic Inheritance - correct answer ✔✔- Mothering styles exerted lifelong changes on offspring brain, physiology, and behavior
  • Here, the environment (mothering style) affected gene expression in offspring (glucocorticoid receptor expression in brain; similar to African cichlid example but now occurring across generations)
  • Mothering styles may be transmitted across generations via epigenetic mechanisms Can parents teach kids what to fear? - correct answer ✔✔Experiment:
  • Male rat (dad) dear conditioned with smell (acetophenone)
  • Dad is "conditioned" and now startles in response to smell
  • Donates sperm (never meets kids he sires) Outcome:
  • Yes, male rat (dad) fear conditioned with smell produced offspring and grand offspring that were MORE fearful of that same smell even though they weren't conditioned
  • Offspring and grand offspring brains (OB) was modified to be more sensitive to the odor Both biological parents transfer memories of their experiences to offspring through sperm - correct answer ✔✔- Mothers can have long-lasting consequences on offspring by variation in transfer of nutrients/hormones/microbes to offspring plus variation in maternal care behavior
  • Just not documenting how experienced of father can affect offspring characteristics through epudenetic changes in sperm (methylation) or transfer of microRNA's to offspring Adaptive Responses to Early Life Cues - correct answer ✔✔- In rats, offspring end up settling in same area as parents, this could benefit them; they "learn" what is harmful (need parents and offspring environments to match)
  • Use information provided by parents to adjust yourself adaptively (intimate connection between mothers and offspring in mammals; information could be parental hormone levels, body mass, oxygen levels)
  • Should increase offspring fitness as long as parents and offspring environments are matched Neural Control of Behavior - correct answer ✔✔- Natural selection has shaped the nervous system of organisms to produce adaptive changes in behavior
  • Brains and nervous system should respond to intrinsic/extrinsic cues in a way that increases survival/reproduction What are the 3 steps in the neural control of behavior? - correct answer ✔✔1. Gather Information
  1. Process Information
  2. Exhibit a Behavioral Response How does natural selection shape the nervous system of moths? - correct answer ✔✔- What matters to a moth is whether they can evade a bat