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PSYC 450 Drugs and
Behaviour Final exam
- What is the difference between pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics? Pharmacokinetics refers to how drugs move through the body (absorption, distribution, metabolism, excretion). Pharmacodynamics refers to how drugs affect the body (mechanisms of action, receptor interactions, effects).
- Name and describe the four primary routes of drug administration.
Oral (PO): Swallowed and absorbed through the digestive system. Slow onset, first- pass metabolism. Intravenous (IV): Directly injected into the bloodstream. Rapid onset, precise control. Intramuscular (IM): Injected into muscle tissue. Medium absorption rate. Inhalation: Absorbed through the lungs. Very rapid onset, high bioavailability.
- What is the blood-brain barrier (BBB), and why is it important in psychopharmacology? The BBB is a protective mechanism that limits the entry of substances into the brain. It is crucial because only lipid-soluble drugs can cross it easily, affecting the central nervous system. Section 2: Neurotransmitters and Drug Effects
- Which neurotransmitter systems are most commonly affected by psychoactive drugs? Dopamine (DA): Reward, motivation (e.g., cocaine, amphetamines increase DA). Serotonin (5-HT): Mood, sleep, appetite (e.g., SSRIs increase serotonin levels). GABA: Inhibitory neurotransmitter (e.g., benzodiazepines enhance GABA). Glutamate: Excitatory neurotransmitter (e.g., alcohol inhibits glutamate).
- How do agonists and antagonists differ in their effects on neurotransmitter activity?
- Explain the role of dopamine in addiction. Drugs increase dopamine release in the brain’s reward pathway (ventral tegmental area to nucleus accumbens). This reinforces drug-taking behavior, leading to addiction. Section 5: Therapeutic and Recreational Drug Use
- How do SSRIs (Selective Serotonin Reuptake Inhibitors) work in treating depression? SSRIs block the reuptake of serotonin, increasing its levels in the synaptic cleft, improving mood. Common SSRIs: Fluoxetine (Prozac), Sertraline (Zoloft), Escitalopram (Lexapro).
- What are the risks associated with recreational marijuana use? Impaired memory and learning. Increased risk of psychosis in vulnerable individuals. Dependence and withdrawal symptoms with long-term use. Section 6: Special Topics in Drugs and Behaviour
- What is the difference between tolerance and sensitization? Tolerance: A reduced response to a drug with repeated use (e.g., needing more alcohol to feel drunk).
Sensitization: An increased response to a drug after repeated use (e.g., cocaine- induced paranoia).
- How do psychedelic drugs like LSD affect perception and cognition? They act on serotonin receptors (5-HT2A), causing altered perception, hallucinations, and synesthesia.
- What is the mechanism of action of caffeine? Caffeine is an adenosine receptor antagonist, reducing fatigue and increasing alertness.
- What is the relationship between drug half-life and withdrawal severity? Drugs with a short half-life (e.g., heroin, nicotine) cause more intense withdrawal symptoms. Drugs with a long half-life (e.g., methadone) have milder withdrawal effects.Section 7: Drug Policies and Harm Reduction
- What are the key differences between decriminalization and legalization of drugs? Decriminalization: Possession of small amounts is not a criminal offense but may have fines or other penalties. Legalization: The drug is fully legal, regulated, and sold under government control.
- What is harm reduction, and what are some examples? Harm reduction focuses on minimizing the negative effects of drug use rather than solely aiming for abstinence.
Rapid onset due to inhalation. Stimulates dopamine release, reinforcing use. Withdrawal symptoms include irritability, cravings, and anxiety. Section 9: Depressants and Their Effects
- How do benzodiazepines work, and why are they prescribed? They enhance GABA activity, causing relaxation and sedation. Prescribed for anxiety, insomnia, and seizures (e.g., Xanax, Valium). Risk: Can cause dependence and dangerous withdrawal symptoms.
- What are the dangers of combining alcohol with other CNS depressants? Synergistic effects increase risk of respiratory depression and overdose. Can lead to blackouts, coma, or death.
- What is delirium tremens (DTs), and who is at risk? Severe alcohol withdrawal syndrome with hallucinations, confusion, and seizures. High risk in chronic alcoholics who suddenly stop drinking. Section 10: Opioids and the Opioid Crisis
- How do opioids produce pain relief? They bind to mu-opioid receptors, blocking pain signals in the brain and spinal cord.
Also cause euphoria, leading to high addiction potential.
- What is fentanyl, and why is it dangerous? Synthetic opioid that is 50–100 times more potent than morphine. High risk of overdose due to small dose requirement.
- How does naloxone (Narcan) work? Opioid antagonist that quickly reverses opioid overdose by blocking opioid receptors. Can restore breathing within minutes. Section 11: Hallucinogens and Their Effects
- What are some common hallucinogens, and how do they affect the brain? LSD, psilocybin (magic mushrooms), MDMA (ecstasy), PCP. Alter perception by affecting serotonin (5-HT2A) receptors.
- What are the long-term effects of MDMA (ecstasy) use? Can cause serotonin depletion, leading to depression and cognitive deficits. Risk of hyperthermia and dehydration at high doses.
- What is "bad trip" in relation to hallucinogens? Acute anxiety, paranoia, and terrifying hallucinations.
- How does drug metabolism change in older adults? Slower metabolism, leading to prolonged drug effects. Increased risk of side effects and toxicity. Section 14: Emerging Trends in Drug Research
- What is microdosing, and what are its proposed benefits? Taking very small doses of hallucinogens (e.g., LSD, psilocybin). Claimed to enhance creativity, focus, and mental well-being.
- What are the potential uses of psychedelics in mental health treatment? Psilocybin and MDMA are being studied for PTSD, depression, and anxiety. May promote neuroplasticity and emotional processing.
- How is ketamine used in psychiatric treatment? Low doses of ketamine can rapidly reduce severe depression and suicidal thoughts. Works by blocking NMDA receptors and enhancing glutamate activity. Section 15: Miscellaneous Drug Facts
- What is the placebo effect in drug research? When a person experiences real effects from an inactive substance due to their expectations.
- What factors influence individual drug responses?
Genetics, metabolism, tolerance, age, and environment. Polydrug use can alter effects.Section 16: Drug Tolerance, Dependence, and Withdrawal
- What are the three main types of tolerance? Metabolic tolerance: The body metabolizes the drug faster, reducing its effects. Pharmacodynamic tolerance: Receptors become less sensitive or decrease in number. Behavioral tolerance: Learned adaptation to drug effects (e.g., functioning while intoxicated).
- What factors influence withdrawal severity? Half-life of the drug (short half-life = more severe withdrawal). Dose and frequency of use. Individual differences (genetics, overall health, environment).
- What is cross-tolerance? Tolerance to one drug extends to another drug with a similar mechanism. Example: Tolerance to alcohol can result in tolerance to benzodiazepines because both affect GABA. Section 17: Alcohol and Its Effects
- What are the primary stages of alcohol metabolism?
Cocaine blocks reuptake of dopamine, serotonin, and norepinephrine. Amphetamines both block reuptake and increase release of these neurotransmitters.
- How do medications like Adderall and Ritalin help with ADHD? Increase dopamine and norepinephrine in the prefrontal cortex, improving attention and impulse control. Section 19: Psychedelics and Dissociative Drugs
- What is synesthesia, and which drugs can cause it? A condition where one sense is perceived as another (e.g., "hearing colors"). Common with LSD, psilocybin (mushrooms), and mescaline (peyote).
- How does PCP (phencyclidine) differ from classic psychedelics? PCP is a dissociative anesthetic that blocks NMDA receptors. Unlike LSD, which enhances serotonin activity, PCP can cause aggression, paranoia, and out-of-body experiences.
- What is ego dissolution, and which drugs can cause it? A feeling of losing one’s sense of self or boundaries. Common with high doses of LSD, psilocybin, and DMT. Section 20: Cannabis and Synthetic Cannabinoids
- What are synthetic cannabinoids (e.g., "Spice" or "K2"), and how do they differ from THC?
They are lab-made chemicals that activate CB1 receptors much more strongly than THC. More dangerous side effects: Anxiety, paranoia, seizures, and psychosis.
- What is the endocannabinoid system (ECS), and how does it function? A biological system involved in mood, appetite, pain, and memory. Consists of CB1 receptors (brain) and CB2 receptors (immune system).
- How does long-term cannabis use affect cognitive function? Can lead to memory deficits, decreased motivation ("amotivational syndrome"), and lower IQ if started in adolescence. Section 21: Opioid Addiction and Treatment
- What is medication-assisted treatment (MAT) for opioid use disorder? Uses medications like methadone, buprenorphine, or naltrexone to reduce withdrawal and cravings.
- How does methadone work in opioid addiction treatment? Long-acting opioid agonist that prevents withdrawal without causing a strong high.
- What are the risks of opioid withdrawal? Severe flu-like symptoms (nausea, vomiting, muscle pain). Not fatal but extremely uncomfortable.
Section 24: Drug Use in Society and Culture
- What is drug set and setting? Set: Psychological state and expectations of the user. Setting: Physical and social environment of use. Together, they influence a drug's effects and risk of bad experiences.
- How do social norms affect drug use? Societal acceptance or stigma can influence drug use patterns (e.g., alcohol use in different cultures).
- What is the gateway drug theory? Suggests that use of less harmful drugs (e.g., cannabis) may lead to harder drug use. However, correlation does not equal causation. Section 25: Drug Testing and Detection
- How do drug tests detect substances in the body? Use urine, blood, hair, or saliva samples to check for drug metabolites.
- Why can cannabis be detected in urine for weeks after use? THC is fat-soluble, meaning it stays stored in fat tissues and is slowly released.
- How does the half-life of a drug affect detection time? Short half-life = cleared quickly (e.g., cocaine, alcohol).
Long half-life = detectable for weeks (e.g., THC, benzodiazepines).Section 26: Neurotransmitters and Drug Effects
- What are the major neurotransmitters affected by psychoactive drugs? Dopamine: Reward and pleasure (stimulants, opioids). Serotonin: Mood and perception (hallucinogens, MDMA). GABA: Inhibition and relaxation (alcohol, benzodiazepines). Glutamate: Excitatory neurotransmitter (ketamine, PCP).
- How do drugs like SSRIs (Selective Serotonin Reuptake Inhibitors) treat depression? Block serotonin reuptake, increasing serotonin levels in the synapse.
- How do NMDA receptor antagonists like ketamine work in depression treatment? Block NMDA receptors, leading to rapid increases in glutamate, which promotes neuroplasticity. Section 27: Performance-Enhancing Drugs
- What are anabolic steroids, and how do they affect the body? Synthetic testosterone derivatives that increase muscle growth and strength. Side effects: Liver damage, aggression ("roid rage"), cardiovascular issues.
- What is blood doping, and why is it banned in sports?
Prefrontal cortex (responsible for decision-making) is still developing. More likely to engage in risk-taking behavior.
- How does early cannabis use impact brain development? Can affect memory, attention, and IQ if used heavily during adolescence.
- What are protective factors against adolescent drug use? Strong family bonds, involvement in school activities, and positive peer influences. Section 30: Drug Use in the Elderly
- Why are older adults at higher risk of drug side effects? Slower metabolism, leading to increased drug accumulation. More likely to be taking multiple medications (polypharmacy).
- What are the risks of benzodiazepine use in older adults? Increased risk of falls, memory problems, and dependency.
- Why is opioid use in the elderly particularly concerning? Greater risk of respiratory depression, confusion, and overdose due to reduced drug clearance. Section 31: Prescription Drug Abuse
- What are the most commonly abused prescription drugs? Opioids (painkillers like oxycodone).
Benzodiazepines (anti-anxiety drugs like Xanax). Stimulants (ADHD medications like Adderall).
- How do prescription stimulants differ from illicit stimulants? Similar mechanisms (dopamine and norepinephrine increase). Prescription stimulants (Adderall, Ritalin) have controlled dosages. Illicit stimulants (methamphetamine, cocaine) have unpredictable purity and potency.
- What are "doctor shopping" and "pill mills"? Doctor shopping: Visiting multiple doctors to obtain prescription drugs. Pill mills: Clinics that overprescribe opioids for profit. Section 32: Drug Policy and International Approaches
- How does Portugal’s drug policy differ from the U.S.? Portugal decriminalized all drugs in 2001, focusing on treatment rather than punishment. Result: Lower overdose rates and decreased HIV transmission.
- What is the War on Drugs, and how has it impacted incarceration rates? U.S. policy emphasizing strict drug enforcement and long prison sentences.
