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Propaganda and Caricature in the First World War
Author(s): Eberhard Demm
Source:Journal of Contemporary History, Vol. 28, No. 1 (Jan., 1993), pp. 163-
Published by: Sage Publications, Ltd.
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EberhardDemm
Propaganda (^) and Caricaturein (^) the FirstWorldWar
The first world war was the first total war in modern history.' It was waged not only against the enemy's armies, but also against the civilian population, and on all fronts military, economic and propagandistic. How could this happen? The road to (^) total war began with the French Revolution. Whereas the rulers of (^) the eighteenth century employed mercenaries, and the normal civilian was only (^) aware of the war if (^) fighting took place near his home, in (^) revolutionary France the whole nation was called to arms: 'Allons enfants de la (^) patrie... '. (^) From then on, wars could not be waged without the consent and the (^) readiness of the people who had to enlist and to produce the arms. Thus it was (^) necessary to beat not only the enemy on the (^) military front, but also to (^) demoralize his population by means of propaganda, bombs and economic sanctions. Once the technical means were available and this was (^) already largely the case in the first world war unlimited warfare was possible. Total war involves another aspect, as explained in 1937 by the anti- democratic German jurist, Carl Schmitt: 'War can be total in the sense of the (^) utmost effort and the utmost employment of all available means.'2 (^) General Erich Ludendorff and the nationalist writer Erich Juingerexpressed similar views.3 Such a war led to 'total politics' (Ludendorff), which (^) completely supervised the population through control of the press and the economy. (^) The prerequisite of such a policy is the 'total state' which 'intervenes in all (^) areas, all spheres of human existence, which no longer acknowledges any private sphere'. Such a state organized society and the economy and directed (^) them toward one single end: the complete mobilization of all forces for war. It was a preliminary version of the totalitarian state, as was established in Germany from 1933, and it is interesting to note that
Journal of ContemporaryHistory (SAGE, London, Newbury Park and New Delhi), Vol. 28 (1993), 163-192.
Demm: Propaganda and Caricaturein the First World War (^165)
final decision on (^) censorship, however, was taken (^) by the (^) local military commanders. What was (^) suppressedby the censors?Any information which could be useful to the (^) enemy, and all news which (^) could distress the people for instance, discussion of the war and its (^) consequences, its (^) cost, and so on. Unfavourable news about the situation at the front was (^) passed over in silence, delayed or toned down. All this was (^) relatively tame. (^) A really aggressive propaganda campaign, in the sense of a systematic brainwashing of public opinion, started in summer 1917 under the 3rd (^) High Command, when General Ludendorif, under the formal direction of (^) Field Marshal Paul von Hindenburg, assumed control. In a letter of (^31) July, Ludendorffsaid that the population had become pessimistic and (^) desperate and that (^) only an effective (^) propaganda campaign could re-establishconfidence.8The (^) press officewas enlarged to a huge propaganda machine which (^) employed hundreds of (^) officers and countless writers, (^) painters, caricaturists, photographers and technicians. Numerous propaganda events were (^) organized under the name of VaterlandischerUnterricht(patriotic instruction), with the help of^ specialized news officers and the 'intellectual leaders' of the people: priests, professors, teachers, etc. While the military (^) controlled propaganda in Germany, the Zentralstelle (^) fur Auslandsdienst (Central Office for Propaganda Abroad) of the Officeof Foreign (^) Affairsdirected German propaganda abroad. In 1916 another (^) propaganda office was established, under Lieutenant-Colonel Hans von Haeften, (^) which was formally part of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs, but came (^) under the command of Bureau III B of the General Staff. From 1917 they were (^) answerable only to the Supreme Command." The (^) Allies also had propaganda departments. In France, censor- ship was (^) organized by the Ministry of War, which gave detailed instructions in its circular letters of (^6) February and 15 March.11The British press office was famous for its effectiveness. In (^) the beginning it was a relatively small organization which (^) concentrated on the London press. Its guidelines were developed in informal talks between (^) government officials and editors.2 Under the Defence of the Realm Act, no information could be published (^) which might be useful to the (^) enemy. In Britain, too, unfavourable news was passed over in silence or delayed. British (^) propaganda succeeded better than its German counterpart to win neutrals over to its cause; (^) it also aimed its appeal at^ German soldiers. With the nomination of the English press magnate Lord Alfred Northcliffe (^) as Director of Propaganda in
166 Journal^ of^ ContemporaryHistory
Enemy Countries in February 1918, Allied propaganda activities against Germany were stepped up considerably: it has been claimed that during summer and autumn 1918, more than 100,000 leaflets per day were dropped over German lines.'3This propaganda campaign is believed to have played a part in hastening the collapse of^ the Austrian front in Italy as well as in the German^ retreat^ of^ summer 1918, but its significance has probably been^ exaggerated.'
What was the role of cartoonists^ in^ German^ and^ Allied^ propaganda? Like all other media workers,^ they^ were,^ of^ course,^ bound^ by^ the restrictions of military censorship^ and^ obliged^ to^ observe^ the propaganda guidelines^ laid^ down^ by^ the^ press^ bureaus.^ Every^ edition had to be submitted to^ the^ censor^ before^ publication^ and^ if^ the^ censor objected, the cartoon^ had^ to^ be^ modified.^ Thus,^ when,^ on^ the occasion of the papal peace offer, a caricature of the Pope was not accepted, the cartoonists presented the cartoon again but this time without the Pope in order to obtain approval.'5 In some cases, there was systematic co-operation between a cartoon magazine and^ an official press office. For instance, in summer 1917 the Zentralstellefiir Auslandsdienstof the German Officeof Foreign Affairs discussed^ with Heine and Gulbransson the compilation of special cartoon^ albums^ to be used as propaganda in neutral countries. In^ these^ albums^ the cartoonists closely followed the^ suggestions of^ the^ Office^ of^ Foreign Affairs.'6This arrangementled^ to^ complete^ harmony^ between^ censors and cartoonists in^ Germany,^ whereas^ in^ France^ caricatures^ were sometimes banned by the censor and in neutral countries cartoonists were occasionally put on trial.' When cartoonists became propaganda agents, their^ traditional^ role radically changed. Before the war^ they were^ social^ critics^ who^ sharply attacked the authoritarian structures^ in^ the^ government, the^ army, the church, and in society as a whole.'8 Of course, not all cartoon magazines were as aggressive as^ Simplicissimus,which^ was^ especially hated by the Junker, the^ Catholic^ Church^ and^ the^ military.^ It^ was denounced by deputies of the Catholic Centre Party as^ a^ 'nuisance^ to the state and society, to morality, morals, and^ good taste...^ which^ on every issue totally shatters^ authority and^ abases^ the^ monarchy^ and the government'.'9 Between^1903 and^1907 alone^ the^ paper^ was confiscated twenty-seven times. The cartoonists^ frequently had^ to appear in court, and^ at^ least^ one^ of^ them, Ludwig^ Thoma,^ had^ to spend six^ weeks^ in^ the^ Stadelheim^ prison^ on^ a^ charge^ of^ lese-^ majeste.
168 Journal^ of^ ContemporaryHistory
Simplicissimusand^ Jugend:^ 'The^ Pope,^ the^ Kaiser^ and^ army^ officers are made into^ caricatures^ ...^ poisoning^ the^ minds^ of^ young^ people who desire freedom' and asked that they be prohibited. In reply, the officers explained^ that^ the^ cartoonists^ were^ controlled^ by^ cen- sorship and that their published^ cartoons^ were^ thus^ officially approved. This change of attitude on the^ part^ of^ the^ cartoonists^ is^ interesting from their biographical point of view. How can we explain the^ change in someone like Ludwig Thoma, who, a few months before^ the^ war, had fulminated against the country's armament programme and against the myth of popular wars and who now enlisted as a medical officer and asked his friend Theodor Heuss to introduce a patriotic note into his left-wing, cosmpolitan periodical, Maerz?29A close examination of their social background shows that, despite their often radical cartoons, Thoma and his colleagues Heine and Gulbransson were no fanatic revolutionaries, but bourgeois liberals who wanted to reform the Empire though not to turn it upside down or destroy it. They were popularizers of liberal ideas, but accepted the social and^ political system^ of^ the^ Empire^ as^ such.^ Many^ years^ after^ the war Thoma^ wrote^ in^ his^ memoirs:
I believe today what^ I^ have^ always believed,^ that^ one^ could^ have^ reformed the old society in^ such^ a^ way^ as^ to^ ensure^ the^ happiness^ and^ the^ great- ness (^) of Germany. The fight for them [the reforms] did not have to be given up on 1 August 1914,^ but^ it^ had^ to^ be^ interrupted,^ and^ it^ was^ our^ duty^ to^ be silent.
Thoma and his friends belonged to the liberal tradition, but^ they were also German nationalists. Some of Heine's early cartoons, for instance^ 'Kolonialmachte'^ of^1904 or^ 'Ein^ Tag^ aus^ der^ Kindheit des serbischen Kronprinzen' of^ 1909,^ attested^ t0-se^ national- istic tendencies, and the often parochial natic, 1 of Thoma was well known.) Thoma wrote in his memoirs: 'vas never^ in my nature to feel international or to do justice to^ our most^ pernicious enemies.'32Censorship and propaganda offices did^ not^ need^ to^ impose their views on the cartoonists; they shared them^ and^ decided^ to^ put their pens and brushes at the service of their country and to fight against the enemy in their own way. The following examples were chosen neither for their^ artistic^ quality nor^ for^ the^ fame^ of^ the cartoonists, but^ as^ representative examples of^ the^ most^ important propaganda targets.
Demm: Propaganda and Caricaturein the First World War (^169)
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Demm: Propaganda and Caricaturein the First World War (^175)
One of the most important aims was to prove the (^) superiority of (^) one's own nation in a war which was conceived not (^) only as a battle of (^) arms but also as a war of (^) ideologies. The German economist (^) Werner Sombart termed it a (^) 'Glaubenskrieg'. 3 Indeed, like the wars of (^) the Reformation or the Christian Crusades, the first world war was viewed as a conflict between two differentcultures.35According to this view, military successes would also decide the quality of the respective social and political organization of the belligerent nations. Thus, the German (^) historian Hermann Oncken in 1915 summarized the military successes achieved (^) by the Central (^) Powers: 'While the institutions and supra-individual forces of (^) Germany hold good, the entire complex of political ideas of the (^) English has (^) beeen shattered.' This war of cultures was (^) fought out in (^) particularbetween Germany and the Western powers. The (^) French, British and Italians considered Germany a veritable bulwark of (^) militarism, slavery and 'Kaiserism', and went on a crusade in the name of (^) civilization and democracy." According to the French philosopher Emile (^) Boutroux, the (^) French concept of freedom had come down from the Greeks, whereas the Germans, allied with Turkey, had inherited the Oriental form of despotism.38The Germans, for their part, could not really condemn liberty and democracy, and embarked upon a strategy which Thomas Mann employed in characteristic fashion in his Betrachtungeneines Unpolitischen:they heaped calumny on Western democracy as the outdated 'parliamentarismof the lawyers' and as a 'plutocracy' which only (^) led to useless quarrels and which falsified the genuine will of the people. Yet (^) what political ideas could Germany offer? The French were fighting for the (^) principles of 1789 - (^) liberty, equality, brotherhood. The Russians wished to unite all (^) Slavic peoples under the banner of Panslavism, and would soon proclaim the (^) communist mission of the liberation of the proletariat. The English fought on (^) behalf of the freedom of the small nations, and had officially entered the war in order to defend Belgium, unjustly attacked by Germany. Germany did not have any such mission -^ a (^) significant short- coming in (^) such an ideological war.40Thus, German intellectuals and academics -^ helped by sympathetic neutrals like (^) the Swedes Rudolf Kjell&n (^) and Gustav Steffen, and the English ideologue of race, Houston Stewart Chamberlain, who had (^) moved to Germany many years before -^ endeavoured to forge a specifically (^) German ideology which (^) they could then juxtapose to Western principles. These were the 'ideas of (^) 1914', the new ideas of a 'young German people', which
Demm: Propaganda and Caricaturein the First World War (^177)
The polarization between (^) Germany and the Western (^) powers occasionally took on ridiculous dimensions. There was a move (^) to stamp out foreign influence in the German (^) language and (^) German fashion, and the response of the (^) English cartoonists to this (^) was especially humorous.50 Curious analogous aberrations (^) appeared in England and France as well. A serious proposal was made to the Academie fran9aise to eliminate the German letter 'K' from the French alphabet; cubism was denounced as German decadence and the (^) cubist collections confiscated as enemy goods, and the English Royal Family (^) tried to (^) obliterate its German origins, changing its name from (^) 'Sachsen-Coburg and Gotha' to 'Windsor'. The Allies adopted a new (^) slogan during the (^) war: the right of self- determination. No (^) people should (^) any longer live (^) under foreign domination. The realization of this (^) principle would (^) spell the disintegration of Germany's most important (^) ally, the multi-national state of Austria-Hungary. On the other (^) hand, Germany promised the alien peoples of Russia -^ the Poles, Ukrainians, the (^) people of the Baltic nations, Georgians, etc. -^ a new freedom, but one that was 'German' in its ultimate form: they would enjoy political autonomy in (^) domestic affairs, yet would remain bound to the German superpower in^ military, political and economic matters. In the polemical (^) discussion about who could best protect the freedom of the small (^) peoples, the German liberal imperialists -^ liberal politicians, right-wing social (^) democrats, industrialists, banking and government circles -^ tried to find an ethical (^) basis for German imperialism: England, due to her alliance with tsarist Russia, had (^) lost all credibility and could no longer claim to protect the rights of small (^) nations. Thus, Germany could now, according to this view, assume the (^) role of political liberator of the small nations of Europe. These would enjoy freedom and political influence as (^) members of a supranational body under German (^) domination: 'Mitteleuropa'.52This project was jus- tified by quoting (^) slogans culled from the writings of the German philosopher Fichte, such as the 'world mission (^) of German freedom' and 'Germany's emancipatory task'. In the battle of the cartoonists which developed in 1917 over this question, the Germans (^) attempted to show how England, as a colonial power in Asia and Africa, as well as in (^) Ireland, had violated the right to (^) self-determination of smaller nations and how she continued to oppress them by her (^) blockade of and intervention in Greece.54A great advantage for Germany was the decision (^) by the Bolsheviks as early as December 1917 to make public the secret treaties which the (^) tsarist
178 Journal of ContemporaryHistory
regime had concluded with the Western powers, and which blatantly violated the right of self-determination. Italy was supposed to be given German and Slavic territories from Austria, and England and France would divide up among themselves the Arab territories of the Ottoman Empire.55The Allied cartoonists responded by prophesying that the German 'liberation' of the alien peoples of Russia would only lead them into a new slavery. The proclamation of the 'independent' Polish kingdom in Nov- ember 1916 by the Central Powers had a special importance in this context. The German cartoonists cited this as an example of the liberation of a country from the Russian yoke; for the Allied cartoonists, Poland was once again in chains.57According to them, the whole enterprisehad only one purpose: to use the Poles as cannon fodder for the German armies, as a cartoon in the magazine Punch put it.58This was what the German High Commmand really had in mind, but their objective was not realized, because of the awkward way they dealt with the Poles. The war of the cartoonists was not^ limited^ to^ the^ discussion^ of ideological principles. Very important was^ their^ use^ of^ personalities kings, politicians, generals who^ represented the^ destiny^ or^ the politics of the^ enemy countries.^ Through^ this^ 'personification',^ hatred could be directed against a concrete person, depicted as ridiculous or horrid, and then, by transfer of emotion, against the country as such. The cartoons of the enemy coalition always differentiated between the principal enemy England or Germany and their respective allies, who appear as totally oppressed. For example, the^ French Prime Minister Clemenceau is depicted as a^ jumping jack, chained^ to England, while Austria's Emperor Francis^ Joseph must^ listen^ like^ an obedient hound to his German master's^ voice.61Sometimes^ even^ the themes are similar: England or^ Germany are^ portrayed sitting in^ a cart being pulled by their respective allies.62Thus, the hope is^ alluded to that some day those who^ are^ now^ allies^ will^ understand^ their^ fate and leave their 'master' in the lurch. Rarely do the German cartoons polemicize against France. This corresponds to the general line of German war propaganda which considered France^ as^ a^ valorous enemy and did not^ even^ rule^ out^ an^ accord^ with^ this^ country.63In^ a caricature titled 'Secret Love', Germany woos the French Marianne, to the fury of England and Russia.'M One example of very subtle manipulation is the German cartoon 'Vierbund Vierverband':65the Central Powers^ (Germany, Austria,
180 Journal of ContemporaryHistory
his charisma, depicting him with scars on his head and as a monster. England was regarded as the main enemy of the Central^ Powers. Even before the war, anti-British sentiments had been^ widespread^ in Germany,72and Britain's unexpected entry into the war, coupled with the English blockade, which led to supply problems in^ Germany, heightened the hatred of'perfidious Albion'.^ Some^ Germans^ replaced the greeting 'Guten Tag' by 'Gott strafe^ England'^ (God^ punish England), and the now forgotten writer^ Ernst^ Lissauer^ penned^ a popular 'song of hate' against^ England. The typical representation^ of^ the^ British^ in^ German^ caricatures^ is the figure of the shopkeeper: 'War^ is^ a^ business^ like^ any^ other',^ says the English Foreign Minister Sir Edward Grey coldly, with two piles of skulls^ lying^ in^ front^ of^ him^ on^ the^ counter.73According^ to^ Alfred Weber, the English had initiated and fought the entire war in order to destroy German trade, and the caricatures reflected this view.74The economist Werner Sombart, in a propaganda pamphlet, contrasted Englishmen and Germans as 'merchants vs heroes', attributing to the British all the negative qualities. His arguments derived^ from^ the^ anti- capitalist arsenal of the socialists as well as from critiques by^ German cultural pessimists, in^ whose eyes capitalism^ and^ industry^ were negative. Even before their entry into^ the^ conflict,^ the^ English^ and^ Americans had been depicted as^ unscrupulous^ 'plutocrats',^ ready^ to^ sacrifice everything for money. The^ Statue^ of^ Liberty^ is^ choked^ by^ American high finance, and^ Woodrow^ Wilson^ wants^ to^ make^ a^ profit^ on^ the war, despite all^ his^ talk^ of^ peace.76This^ attack^ against^ hypocrisy^ was significant, since^ Wilson^ was^ a^ highly^ skilled^ master^ of^ propaganda, and there was a danger that the German people might be^ taken^ in^ by his appeals for peace.77On the other hand, the^ Allied^ cartoonists reproached Wilson with being ready to^ put up with^ anything and^ to accept, with enormous patience, all^ violations^ of^ American^ interests at the^ hands^ of^ German^ submarine^ warfare.78. Another charge levelled against the^ Anglo-Saxons by the^ Germans was that of 'cant', which^ the^ German^ philosopher Max^ Scheler defined as^ the^ 'equivalent of^ a^ lie^ with^ good^ conscience'.79^ This implied that the English had a^ tendency to^ smooth^ over^ their imperialistic interests with^ fancy-sounding words^ and^ moralistic pronouncements. In^ one^ caricature,^ they^ are^ depicted^ laying^ mines^ in order to destroy German ships, not forgetting to^ decorate^ them^ with Christmas trees.80A^ literary symbol of^ this^ 'cant'^ was^ the^ figure^ of Dorian Grey in^ the^ famous^ novel^ by^ Oscar^ Wilde:^ Grey's^ immoral
Demm: Propaganda and Caricaturein the First World War (^181)
way of life does not leave any visible marks on his beautiful (^) face, and deforms only the features on his hidden (^) portrait.8' The (^) common surname shared by Dorian (^) Grey and (^) English Foreign Minister, Sir Edward (^) Grey, was soon (^) exploited by cartoonists (^) to their advantage. In Allied caricatures, the German soldier is portrayed as an incendiary and murderer, who commits all sorts of atrocities. Appalling drawings of burning houses, raped women and mutilated children are very typical.83The underlying reason behind this was that throughout the war, German troops had occupied large areas of France, Belgium and (^) Russia; Belgium and Lithuania especially were very badly treated: heavy requisitions and contributions were exacted, and deportations were (^) frequent. On the other (^) hand, Allied commissions 'proved' alleged German atrocities with the aid (^) of scientific-looking documents which were, of (^) course, far from (^) objec- tive.84In contrast, there were no foreign soldiers on German (^) soil, apart from a small area in Alsace, and so it was difficult for German cartoonists to retaliate in the same way.85They could only point to the presence of Cossacks in Galicia and Eastern Prussia at the start of the war, and (^) were obliged to limit their polemic to a purely defensive strategy by (^) presenting the positive actions of German soldiers. Such caricatures appeared (^) particularly in (^) those papers destined for the occupied areas, such as the Gazette des (^) Ardennes.86Thus the Germans reacted in a purely defensive manner, and Allied propaganda (^) proved much more successful. Not only did it inspire hatred of the enemy in their (^) own fighting men, it also succeeded in enflaming public opinion against Germany in the neutral countries. Here the Allies could also rely on a number of (^) journalists and cartoonists, such as the Dutch cartoonist Louis (^) Raemakers, whose caricatureswere considered to be one of the most dangerous weapons (^) against Germany. In 1935, a German author wrote: 'The cartoons of (^) Raemakers had more propaganda value than several volumes of English propaganda pamphlets put together.'87The English distributed millions of copies of (^) Raemakers's cartoons all over the world, and the cartoonist was not only well paid, but awarded (^) prestigious English and French medals for his efforts. The Allied (^) soldiers in German cartoons are often depicted as being incompetent or ridiculous. That was relatively easy when it came to cartoons featuring the Italians, who were indeed often something less than heroes; (^) Russians were portrayed as illiterate drunkards.89This method of denigration in German cartoons was not as ineffective as
