Comparing Suffragettes & Prisoner Voting: Women's Rights Movements & Political Engagement, Lecture notes of Law

Download Comparing Suffragettes & Prisoner Voting: Women's Rights Movements & Political Engagement and more Lecture notes Law in PDF only on Docsity!

POLITICS REVISION GUIDE

UK GOVERNMENT AND POLITICS

Contents UK Politics Topic 1- Democracy and Participation

• Key ideas in Politics o What is Politics? o What is power? o What is authority?
• Forms and functions of democracy?
• Development of the franchise
• Participation
• Is there a participation crisis?
• Rights and Responsibilities
• Is the UK a liberal democracy?
• How do different groups vote?
• Explaining voter choice
• Election case studies Topic 2- Elections and Direct Democracy
• Functions of elections
• Elections in the UK
• Types of electoral systems
• Positives and negatives of different electoral systems
• Referendums
• Types of referendums
• Should we use more referendums? Topic 3- Political Parties
• Introduction and roles of political parties
• Ideologies and Party Systems
• Conservatives
• Labour
• Minor Parties
• Ideological Convergence
• Party Finance
• Are parties still relevant? Topic 4- Pressure Groups
• What are pressure groups?
• Functions of pressure groups
• Why are pressure groups important?
• Why do people join pressure groups and why have they increased in number?
• Classifying pressure groups
• Pressure group methods
• Direct Action
• Factors influencing success
• Pressure groups and pluralism
• Are pressure groups good for democracy? Topic 5- The European Union
• What is the EU?
• Aims of the EU?
• How has the UK seen the EU?
• Key Institutions
• Is there a democratic deficit?
• EU Policy-making

• Has devolution undermined the Union? UK Politics Topic 1- Democracy and Participation What is Politics?
• The political process is the process by which conflicts are resolved.
• This includes conflicts over; o Scarcity of resources o Ideological differences o Differences in approach o Divisions of labour and power
• Politics is therefore the activity of mediating between competing demands in society and the way in which power is divided between individuals, between individuals and the state, and between different institutions that make up the state. What is power?
• Power is the ability to get someone to something they would not otherwise do o The ability to force someone o The ability to persuade someone o The ability to direct discussion towards your goal (Agenda Setting) What is authority?
• Authority is the legitimate exercise of power
• Authority can be gained through several means but it is based in consent
• In a democracy this therefore comes through elections o Manifesto Mandate Forms and functions of democracy What is democracy?
• The term democracy comes from the Greek demokratia - union of demos (meaning the people) and kratos (meaning power)
• Literally it is ‘rule by the people’ or ‘people power’
• ‘The process of government by which the government is held to account by the people of a country through elections.’
• “Democracy is the worst type of government, but it’s better than all the others we’ve tried.” W Churchill The evolution of democracy
• Originates from Ancient Athens
• Citizens voted on individual issues in order to make decisions o Direct democracy
• The citizens drew lots to decide who would administrate
• In his book ‘The Republic’ the philosopher Plato argued that democracy wouldn’t last
• In modern societies and nations direct democracy is no longer practical
• It has been replaced by ‘representative democracy’
• This is where the people choose those who make day-to-day decisions
• In the UK this comes in the form of the election of MPs to the Westminster Parliament

• Direct democracy may still be possible over the internet o E-thenian Democracy What are the differences between representatives and delegates?
• Direct o All people make decisions o The Executive are delegates based on the will of the people o Used in ancient city states o Increasingly common in liberal democracies
• Representative o Elected representatives make decisions o Representatives are ‘Trustee Representatives’, not delegate o Used on larger, more complex, modern democracies What is the difference between representatives and delegates?
• A delegate always has to do as they are told
• A trustee representative is trusted to make decisions on behalf of the people
• MPs represent everybody in their constituency o Jeremy Corbyn represents everyone in Islington North o Ian Paisley represented Catholics just as strongly as Protestants Functions of democracy
• Representation o There must be a means of the people being able to put their views to the government of the day
• Accountability o There must be a process by which the government of the day can be made to take responsibility for their actions while in power
• Participation o There must be a way in which people can engage themselves in the decision-making process. Without an avenue for participation the risk of frustration, instability, and potential violence increases
• Power Dispersal o There should be a system that ensures power is not held in too few hands
• Legitimacy o The process for the selection of the different branches of government should have legal authority and fairly represent the will of the people. In this way decisions can be made legitimately and with either the clear or tacit (unspoken) support of the people
• Education o The political process should be open to all who wish to take part in it. There should be an educated and informed citizenry who are able to understand the issues of the day and make informed decisions Development of the franchise What is the franchise?
• The franchise is the right to vote
• Those who^ hold the franchise are those who are eligible to vote
• Those with the right to vote are determined by legislation
• Therefore the franchise can be extended in a one-off piece of legislation
• Currently everyone over 18 has the franchise other than those disqualified
• This is known as^ ‘Universal Suffrage’

▪ The right to vote is a fundamental right that cannot be removed ▪ Removal of the vote makes a prisoner a non-citizen and further alienates them ▪ The European Court of Human Rights has ruled that a blanket ban violates the ECHR o Arguments against prisoner voting ▪ Those who commit a custodial crime against society should lose the right to have a say in how that society is run ▪ The threat of losing the right to vote prevents crime and enhances civic responsibility ▪ Giving convicted criminals the right to have a say in how laws are made would undermine the principle of justice ▪ Prisoners are concentrated in certain constituencies where they are unlikely to remain once free. Therefore they should not be able to choose the local representative o Votes at 16 ▪ Not unprecedented

• Channel Islands
• Austria
• Nicaragua
• Brazil
• Ecuador
• State elections in Germany
• Hungary (if married)
• Slovenia (if employed)
• Argentina
• Scottish independence referendum ▪ Votes at 16 is an umbrella group made up of
• British Youth Council
• Children’s Rights Alliance for England
• National Union of Students
• Public Achievement
• Scottish Youth Parliament ▪ Methods
• Adopt a lord
• Encourage to email an MP
• Suggestions on how to spread awareness of the campaign
• Passing a model motion
• Resources for schools
• Engaging community groups
• Planning a campaign
• Advice on lobbying representatives Participation What are the different forms of political participation in politics?
• There are two majorly distinct forms of participation in the political process. These are electoral and non- electoral participation.
• A secondary area that can be considered as part of participation is ‘traditional’ forms of participation such as voting and joining a political party, and ‘non-traditional’ forms of participation such as engaging in discussions on social media and supporting a pressure group. Electoral Participation
• Voting in a general election
• Voting in a second order election
• Canvassing
• Organising and attending election events and fundraisers
• Staffing campaign offices

Non-electoral participation

• Writing to an elected representative
• Meeting with an elected representative
• Being a member of a political party o This does not always involve election activities and therefore comes under non-electoral o Activities that stem from being a member of a political party can be included in electoral participation
• Engaging in a political protest or organised pressure group activity
• Discussing political issues Evaluation when considering levels of participation When looking at levels of participation is important to consider different features to evaluate the effectiveness of the data to hand. The most important elements to consider is the extent to which people may participate in pressure groups. It is clear that some people can be very involved in pressure group activity while at the same time some may simply pay their membership fees as a general show of support. The same can be said for political parties (this has been particularly highlighted within the Labour Party with the boom in membership since the summer of 2015). Is there a participation crisis? Yes
• Electoral participation ▪ Mid 70s% as an average WWII-1990s ▪ 2001 - 59%, 200 5 - 61%, slight increase to 65, 66, and 69% in recent elections o Second order election turnout ▪ EU elections average 30% ▪ By-elections and local elections average 25-35% ▪ Scottish Parliament elections roughly 50% (50% in 2011) ▪ PCC elections; 12-14% average o Elections are the main method of participation and are the only time at which everyone participates on an equal basis o Low turnout can also limit legitimacy- Labour’s landslide majority of over 60 in 2005 was achieved with only 26% of potential voters o Extremist parties benefit as they have a more committed support base
• Party membership o Despite the increase in Labour membership since 2015 to just under 600,000 party membership has been in decline since WWII o 1950s: Cons, 3 million; Lab, 1 million o Disillusionment with traditional parties o Difficulties for parties No
• Increasing turnout o Turnout increasing at general elections since 2001 while major referendums have seen high turnout ▪ EU Ref- 72%, Scottish Ref- 85% o Turnout is larger than in the past and the number of voters has increased
• More parties o There is increased choice for voters with the share of the vote for the two main parties declining over the last 20 years
• Pressure groups o Pressure groups membership has increased dramatically as people have now looked at single issue campaigns rather than identifying with a party
• Social campaigns o Social media has transformed politics and the way in which people share information o Facebook has a 71% market share and is used by a huge range of different groups o Online petitions regularly reach the required threshold of 100,000 in order to be debated in Parliament

o Detention o Free Speech and the right to protest o Anti-social behaviour Who best defends rights?

• Judges o Strengths ▪ Judges exercise the rule of law and use the HRA 1998 ▪ Enhanced judicial independence since the CRA 2005 ▪ Judicial neutrality is key to the entire concept of the judiciary o Weaknesses ▪ Judges are undemocratic and unaccountable ▪ Senior judges work with parliament to advise on legislation ▪ Parliamentary Sovereignty means the government can overrule the judges ▪ Judges are unrepresentative
• Parliament o Strengths ▪ Parliament is the voice of the British people ▪ Parliament is more representative than the judiciary ▪ Parliament introduced and passed all human rights legislation ▪ MPs represent their constituents and can raise citizen issues ▪ Parliament is accountable to the people o Weaknesses ▪ Short-term political concerns ▪ Parliament can suspend or change the HRA 1998 ▪ Parliament is usually dominated by a single governing party ▪ The House of Lords undermines the democratic argument ▪ MPs may be reluctant to challenge a scared population in order to defend human rights Is the UK a liberal democracy? What are the key elements of liberal democracy?
• Guaranteed civil rights
• Democratic method of changing government
• 2 central themes o Representative democracy o Responsible government
• John Locke’s Contract Theory o Contract- a two party agreement in which both sides consent to certain terms and conditions. o Deal, Agreement, Bargain o An agreement between government and the people o The government protect civil rights and the people respect the law o If the government violates human rights the people reserve the right to get rid of them
• Government by Consent o Manifesto Mandate Principle o Manifesto- promise that the party make before the election o Mandate- from the Latin ‘mandatum’ meaning ‘orders’ o The winning party has the permission of the people Arguments for the UK being a liberal democracy
• Free and fair elections o Wide number of elections free from government interference. Conducted by the Electoral Commission. Regulations such as spending limits and a ban on campaigning during purdah. Broadcasting restrictions
• Turnout o Turnout has increased since 2001 (EU Ref 72%, Scott Ind 85%, 2017GE 69%)

• Universal suffrage
• The party system o 8 currently represented in the House of Commons- opportunities for representation for a wide range o Parties drive public education in politics
• Pressure Groups o Opportunities for non-electoral participation o Mouthpiece for minority interests o Investigate, develop government policy, represent groups that might be missed out
• Parliamentary Sovereignty o The chosen representatives of the people are the ones with ultimate authority to make decisions (indirect consent)
• Devolution o Decisions are made at the most local level possible Arguments against the UK being a liberal democracy
• Unelected elements o Monarchy,^ House of Lords (no accountability/consent) o Only restricted fully by convention
• Turnout o Significant decrease since the 1950s (1997 was the lowest at 71%)
• The West Lothian Question and EVEL o Issues with devolution and two-tiers of MPs
• The voting system o Flaws with FPTP ▪ Wasted votes, safe seats, unrepresentative, 30% bonus, discriminates against parties with widespread support, minority constituencies, 2 party system
• Lack of meaningful choice o 2 party system
• Elitist pressure groups o Insider status,^ size of membership, wealth, public profile
• Weakness of the Electoral Commission o Reactive rather than proactive, 2015 spend limit offences not fixed before the 2017 election
• Lack of entrenched rights and Parliamentary Sovereignty o Parliament is the^ ultimate authority and so can remove rights or ignore judges’ rulings How do different groups vote? Regions
• Scotland o Traditionally left-wing o Post-industrial major cities traditionally dominated by Labour but now SNP o Increasingly Unionist v Nationalist o Opposition to London-centric policies o Devolution has led to increased SNP support
• Wales o Heavily Labour in the South, Valleys, and north-east o Strong Conservative support in rural areas and Snowdonia o Plaid Cymru successful in western regions
• Northern Ireland o Has its own party system o Unionist v Nationalist o Protestant v Catholic (traditionally)
• London o Comfortable Labour majority o Pockets of affluent Conservative support o Large levels of ethnic diversity o High rates of poverty and urban decay o More socially liberal
• Rural England

o Men vote slightly more for conservative parties o Recent concerted efforts by politicians on gender equality ▪ Labour’s pink battlebus 2015 ▪ Conservatives and Lib Dems pushed for greater women’s equality in 2014 ▪ Labour 2017- committed to a gender impact assessment on all policies and legislation o 2015 ▪ Women backed the Conservatives 37-33 but by a smaller margin than men (38-30) o 2017 ▪ Women split evenly between Labour and the Conservatives (43-43) while men supported the Conservatives (45-39)

• Age o The Conservatives have long performed better among older voters than Labour o Younger voters are generally seen as being more in favour of Labour’s greater level of idealism and collectivism o For every ten years older a person is the likelihood they will vote Labour decreases by 9 points o 2017 ▪ The dividing line was 50, significantly higher than 2010 and 2015 where it had been in the late 30s o Older voters are much more likely to vote ▪ 70+: 84% ▪ 18 - 24: 58%
• Ethnicity o Ethnic minorities traditionally vote as a majority for Labour o Social class tends to dominate ethnicity o Those in higher social classes are more likely to vote Conservative o Labour lost significant amounts of support among Muslim voters in 2005 following the Iraq War o Labour has regained significant amounts of this support since o 2015 ▪ White: Con 39, Lab 28 ▪ BME: Con 23, Lab 65 Turnout What is turnout?
• One way to participate in politics is to vote.
• Levels of turnout are an important measure of political participation.
• Low turnout is a problem because it brings into question the government’s legitimacy and the strength of the electoral mandate.
• E.g 2005 Labour gained a majority of 65 seats with the support of 35.2% of the 61.4% of the eligible voters. This is 21.6% of the voters. Why does turnout vary?
• Type of election
• Apathy
• Hapathy
• Relative value of the vote
• The type of electoral system
• The mass media
• Weather- 1 inch of rain = 1% drop in turnout
• Competitiveness Why has turnout decreased in recent decades?
• Hapathy o 2010 and 2015 saw a rise after the economic crash. (E- not back to previous levels)
• Competitiveness o 2010 and 2015 saw a rise with a more competitive election. (E- not back to previous levels)

• Leadership o Lack of inspiration. 2015- Cameron +3, Miliband and Clegg both negative (E- Major was certainly not inspirational and won more votes than any other Prime Minister in 1992)
• Apathy What causes apathy? General
• Lack of trust
• Belief in similarity
• Scandals and sleaze
• ‘One vote doesn’t make a difference’
• Strong Party ID and belief that a party is “rubbish” result in people not voting rather than switching
• Youth
• Safe seats- Manchester Central 44%
• Lack of marginality
• Disillusionment among ethnic minorities due to poor representation
• Lack of political and citizenship education
• Feeling of powerlessness
• Alienation/Disenfranchisement Recent and 2015
• Traditional Labour voters have felt isolated by policy- since the change in party policy under Tony Blair in the 1990s
• Poor leadership fails to inspire- Cameron, Miliband, Brown, Clegg 2015
• 19% of people felt the Conservatives were on the side of regular people
• Lack of inspirational language
• Even people who are interested think the media makes it sound boring
• Growth in individualism- since the 1980s British society has focussed more on the individual than on the collective society
• Voters were confused over a lack of clarity and belief that there would be a coalition- many also put off by the experience of the last coalition 2010
• 6% of non-voters trusted politicians
• Turnout lowest among ethnic minorities, people who do not own their own homes, and people on low incomes
• Age Gap o 18 - 24 v 65+ = 40% o Doubled since 1987
• Income Gap o Low v High = 23% o From 4% in 1987 Who participates and to what extent?
• In most established democracies the level of participation is considered to fall well below the ideal
• Beyond voting other forms of participation are sporadic at best
• Many voters are ill-informed on political issues with large numbers in Britain able to name their MP, MEP, or local councillors
• There are considered to be three types of political involvement o Gladiators- those that are deeply committed o Spectators- the large majority that observe and limit their participation to voting o Apathetics- non-participants who do not engage with the process
• Party membership has been in decline since the high point of the 1950s o 1951: Con, 2.9m; 2011: Con, 170,

Education

• At the last election education emerged as the primary factor in predicting which way an individual would vote
• Class barriers broke down (as they had gradually been doing for 50 years)
• The higher the level of education a person received the more likely they were to vote for a left wing party The Economy
• Long-term o Largely based on overall impressions o Economic reputation/perception of economic competence o Swings based on major events o Conservatives led until Black Wednesday and the 1992 recession o Labour led until 2009
• Short-term o “It’s the economy stupid.” Bill Clinton 1992 campaign o Feeds into current issues ▪ Jobs ▪ How much are people earning ▪ Inflation ▪ Do people think things are improving, or getting worse ▪ “Are you better off than you were four years ago?” Ronald Reagan re-election statement 1984 ▪ Almost all elections are won and lost on the government’s economic record Policies and the manifesto
• Classical rational choice theory
• Voters consider the parties’ policies and make their decision based on them
• (^) How do the parties’ policies relate to voters’ concerns? o (^2015) - Conservative focus on the economy was the number one issue o 1983 - Labour’s manifesto dubbed ‘The longest suicide note in history.’ Key Issues
• Elections aren’t a fight over the answer to a^ question. They’re a fight over the question itself
• Each party tends to have an area where voters see it as more effective o Conservative-^ Economy and Immigration o Labour- Health and Education
• Parties have to tailor their message to what the people are concerned about
• 1997 - “Education, education, education.”
• 2001 - “Save the pound”
• 2015 -^ “Sorry, there’s no money left.” Campaigns
• The quality of the campaign has a major influence on people’s perceptions of the parties o Mostly if the leaders are not especially well known
• A poor campaign will tend to lose people’s confidence, while a strong campaign can dispel impressions of weakness and inefficiency
• 2017 o “Strong and Stable” v “The Maybot” o Labour’s efficient campaign o 1997
• Not always the case o 1987 - Labour ran a highly praised campaign and there was a lot of optimism but The Conservatives’ record in government meant they were soundly beaten
• Recent Elections o Rise in the number of floating voters/swing voters

o Denver analysis of 1992 showed that only 61% had made up their minds before the short campaign (21% in the last week and 6% on the final day) o Campaigns run for months but the official or ‘short campaign’ lasts between 4 and 6 weeks o This is the point at which Parliament is officially dissolved o 2001 the campaigns appeared to change little with little interest in turnout or coverage o 2010 and the rise of debates o The campaign became dominated by the debates between the 3 leaders o 2015 - debates and interviews continued to be the discussion points

• Purposes of Campaigns o Reinforce the views of those who are already committed o Recruit the undecided o Convert other parties’ waverers
• Target Voters o Campaigns are targeted at marginal constituencies o Recent elections have seen the campaigns focus on 70-100 seats due to funding o “There are 7.4m voters in the target seats, but it will be 838,000 who decide the election.” Conservative activist speaking in 2005 o Polls have remained fairly stable through the last few elections o Major movement came after the first 2010 debate with Nick Clegg’s performance moving the Lib Dems up above Labour in the polls o In the end the voting returned largely to where it had been before the election
• Opinion Polls o Polling began in 1938 o Random sampling (electoral register) and quota sampling (face to face interviews) o Issues with polling o Winning margins 2001- Rasmussen 11%, MORI 17% o Inaccuracy of the 1992 poll o Exit polling generally accurate o 2015 saw much criticism of the polling systems o Problems often stem from undecided not being included in the published figures o Very accurate up until the 1970s o Still seen as important o Parties use them to craft their message and target voters and areas o “I don’t look at the polls.” = Total Lie o Parties run their own internal polls o PMs used to use polls to decide when to call an election ▪ Callaghan 1978, Brown 2007 o Bandwagon Effect o Boomerang Effect Performance in Office
• Economic and valence issues theory
• Focused on who they think will be the best in office
• Partially judged on past performance in office where this is relevantly recent
• If the economy does well the government is rewarded with another term (usually)
• 2015 -^ The Conservatives were given credit for stabilising the economy as Labour received the blame for the 2008 recession on the principle that they had spent too much money while in office Leadership
• General elections are heavily focused on which party leader the electorate want to be Prime Minister
• May seem strange given the fact that the election does not directly elect the Prime Minister
• Growing influence of the media
• Rise of spatial leadership
• Voters who decide on who to vote for late often do it on the basis of who they are comfortable with being Prime Minister (do they want continuity or a change) o 1992 o 2015

• patterns of voting behaviour/changes over time – as revealed by relevant national data sources, and explanations of how and why they varied in different elections
• the influence of the media on the outcomes
• the reasons for and the impact of party policies on the outcomes
• the reasons for and the influence of manifestos on the outcomes
• the impact of campaigns and leadership on the outcomes
• the role of elections and their influence on policy and policy making
• likely effects of the electoral system on the party system Topic 2- Elections and Direct Democracy Functions of elections
• Representation
• Choosing a government
• Participation
• Influence over policy
• Accountability
• Citizen education
• Legitimacy
• Elite recruitment Types of electoral systems
• Majoritarian o 50+1 to win o AV, SV
• Plurality o Most votes wins o FPTP
• Proportional representation o % of seats + % of votes o Regional List, STV (not purely proportional)
• Hybrid Systems o A combination of different systems o AMS Positives and negatives of different systems FPTP Positives
• Simplicity
• Clear Outcome
• Strong and stable government
• Responsible government
• Effective representation FPTP Negatives
• Disproportionate outcomes
• Majority support is not usually the result
• Votes are of unequal value due to safe seats
• There is a lack of effective choice as only two parties usually have a chance of winning
• It creates divisive or adversarial politics

AV Positives

• Representatives are elected by a majority of their constituents
• The winning candidate must achieve broad support
• The link between representatives and their constituents is retained as there are single member constituencies
• The ‘spoiler effect’ is reduced AV Negatives
• It is not a proportional system- Labour would have won a bigger majority in 1997, as would the Conservatives in 2015
• The candidate that secures most votes may not be elected meaning it is the least unpopular, rather than the most popular that wins
• The second preferences of people who vote for small and extremist parties count for more than those who vote for major parties SV Positives
• The winning candidate must achieve broad support
• The second preferences of voters who supported minority parties are not counted- only those second preferences going to major parties count SV Negatives
• The winning candidate does not need to get a majority of first preference votes- it is the least unpopular that wins
• If used for general elections, it would not produce a proportionate outcome Regional List Positives
• There is a high degree of proportionality. The larger the region, the more proportional the outcome can be.
• Political parties can use their lists to ensure that a greater proportion of women and ethnic minorities are represented in the result Regional List Negatives
• In a closed list the parties control candidate selection. It is impossible for voters to vote out a single candidate, and this in turn creates the possibility that the candidates represent the party rather than the people
• Parties can favour candidates that favour the leadership and thus make the parties themselves less democratic
• The link between representatives and constituents is weakened in large multi-member constituencies STV Positives
• It has a good record of delivering proportional outcomes, and ensures that votes are largely of equal value
• Only a party or group of parties that wins more than 50% of the popular vote can form a government
• Voters can choose between a large range of candidates
• Candidate selection is largely handed to the voters rather than the parties
• It maintains local representation
• It ensures a wide range of views are represented at a local level (Northern Ireland) STV Negatives
• The system is less accurate in translating votes into seats than list systems or some versions of AMS