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A comprehensive overview of key concepts in physiology and anatomy, focusing on nerve channels, action potential propagation, bone structure, and bone metabolism. It covers topics such as the role of sodium and potassium channels in nerve impulse transmission, different types of bones, bone formation processes (intramembranous and endochondral ossification), bone remodeling, and the influence of calcium and hormones on bone density. The document also discusses bone repair mechanisms and common bone disorders like osteoporosis, offering a detailed understanding of the skeletal and nervous systems. It includes multiple-choice questions and answers, making it a useful study aid for students in related fields. Useful for students who want to review the main concepts of physiology and anatomy.
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Nav channels are a __________ feedback loop.
positive
1 multiple choice option
What is the outside factor that stops the Nav positive feedback loop?
inactivation gate of Nav channel
Decreasing sodium permeability _______ enough to repolarize membrane potential.
is
1 multiple choice option
___________ channels speed up the process of repolarization.
Voltage gated potassium
Where are Kv channels found?
along axon hillock and axon
Kv channels open ___________ than Nav channels.
slower
1 multiple choice option
Kv channels reach peak permeability during...
repolarization
When Kv channels are open...
-K+ leaves the cell, carrying positive charge out
-leads to development of negative potential inside cell
An increase in potassium permeability moves membrane potential closer to...
K+ Eion
When membrane potential is back below threshold...
Kv channels become closed and inactive
lidocaine (or any anethestic ending in caine)
inhibitor of voltage-gated sodium channel activity
With AP Propogation, the axon can be divided into...
segments
functions of the bone
support, protection, movement, storage depot for calcium and phosphorus salts, hematopoiesis
Hematopoiesis
blood cell formation
Hematopoiec stem cells
stems cells inside the bone that differentiate into blood cells (multipotent)
Classes of Bones
long, short, flat, irregular, sesamoid
long bones
longer than they are wide (ex.femur)
short bones
square, as wide as they are long (ex.feet/hands)
flat bones
flatter than they are round (ex.skull or sternum)
irregular bones
looks very odd (ex.giraffe-shaped)
sesamoid bones
bones that form inside of a tendon (ex.patella)
spongy bone (long bone structure)
in the epiphysis, has hollow parts filled with red bone marrow
red bone marrow
active, has hematopoiec stem cells
Two Different Types of Bone
compact and spongy
compact bone
contains osteons, concentric layers of lamellae, central canal in the middle with vessels and nerves
spongy bone
forms lattice like network of trabeculae, trabeculae lighten the weight of the bone, between trabeculae is red bone marrow
Two Layers in Long Bone
periosteum and endosteum
Two layers in Periosteum
fibrous and cellular
periosteum
wrapping along the outside of the long bone,
outside layer: fibrous
inside layer: cellular
fibrous layer (periosteum)
-outside, most superficial part of the bone
-consists of Dense Irregular Connective Tissue
-weaves around providing framework (helps weave bone into tendon that then attaches to muscles or ligaments that attach bone to bone)
cellular layer (periosteum)
-deep inside the fibrous layer
-contains cells that can deposit calcium salts or take them away (bone remodeling)
bone is a...
dynamic tissue (changing because made up of living cells and very vascularized)
How is the bone very vascularized?
Within the center of osteons there are tiny blood vessels that perforate center canals, central canals get blood supply through Volkmann's canals
ossification
process of bone formation (starts in early gestation)
mesenchyme
embryonic connective tissue (very vascular, lots of blood vessels because of growing fetus, contains large amount of collagen fibers)
Initially, the fetal skeleton is formed by a connective tissue called...
mesenchyme
Two types of bone formation
intramembranous and endochondral
intramembranous ossification (*know process)
process by which bone forms directly from mesenchymal tissue, occurs mostly in flat bones (skull, mandible, clavicle)
After a baby is born...
intramembranous ossification may continue (bones of the skull not completely formed)
fontanelles
large areas of dense connective tissue between the parts of the skull to allow for flexibility during birth
sutures
special type of joint between bones of the skull
endochondral ossification continues until...
chondrocytes stop proliferating and entire growth plate ossifies
appositional growth
increase in width of the bone (compact bone thickens and strengthens long bone with layers of circumferential lamellae)
bone remodeling
occurs in response to changes in demand (ex. weight training/prolonged bed rest)
Wolff's Law
bones remodel in response to compressive force
Bone Metabolism
-influenced by physical activity and exercise
-nutrition contributes to bone density
-calcium is necessary for bone health
If we have excess calcium...
bones are added to, making them a greater calcium reservoir
If we don't have enough calcium...
calcium is taken away from bones because they are a calcium reservoir
In bone metabolism, the parathyroid gland...
detects that plasma calcium is low, triggers a release of parathyroid hormone which is secreted into the blood, stimulates osteoclast activity and reabsorption of calcium by kidneys and intestine.
In bone metabolism, the thyroid gland...
detects excess blood calcium, releases calcitonin which is then secreted into the blood, inhibits osteoclasts and stimulates osteoblasts which starts calcium salt uptake and deposition into the bone
bone metabolism is a...
negative feedback loop (bc of parathyroid hormone and calcitonin)
soft callus
second step of bone repair, cells from endosteum start to form fibrocartilage around the break
bony callus
third step of bone repair, cells from periosteum form a hyaline cartilage callus around the outside of the bone and osteoclasts reabsorb dead bone fragments and osteoblasts start remodeling
remodeling
fourth step of bone repair, spongy bone and compact bone are back in correct places
closed fracture
a break that is contained within the skin
open fracture
a break where the bone breaks through the skin
greenstick fracture
bone doesn't break through all the way (common in children because bones aren't fully ossified)
articulation
meeting place of 2 or more bones (ex. shoulder joint connects the humerus and scapula)
general features of joints
range of motion and degrees of freedom
range of motion
the normal extent of mobility for a specific joint (ex. ROM of wrist flexion is 70- 90 degrees)
degrees of freedom
number of axes at which movement occurs in a particular joint. (ex. wrist is biaxial with 2 degrees of freedom and 2 planes of movement)
Amphiarthrosis
slightly movable joint
Diarthrosis
freely movable joint
flexion/extension occurs in what plane?
saggital plane
flexion
bending a joint, decreasing the angle between bones
extension
Straightening of a joint, increasing an angle between bones
abduction/adduction occurs in which plane?
frontal
abduction
Movement away from the midline of the body
adduction
Movement toward the midline of the body
midline can refer to...
the middle of body parts instead of the middle of the body
circumduction occurs in which plane?
saggital and frontal plane
circumduction
combination of movements in a cone-like shape
