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Ann Gentile's Motor Learning Stages In stage 1, the learner is getting the idea of the movement. In stage 2, the learner focuses on fixation, or working on consistency and closed skills (e.g., executing the skill in isolation) and diversification, or working on open skill in changing environments. Ann Gentile's Motor Learning Stage 1 the learner is getting a grasp on the movements that are required for the skill. The learner decides on the regulatory and nonregulatory conditions needed to perform the movement. Regulatory Conditions include things like equipment type, positions of players, and the proximity to the goal. These aspects must be considered before a learner can be proficient. Nonregulatory Conditions conditions are those characteristics of the environment that have no influence or remain as indirect influences on the movement characteristics required to achieve an action goal Ann Gentile's Motor Learning Stage 2 the learner focuses on fixation, or working on consistency and closed skills (e.g., executing the skill in isolation) and diversification, or working on open skill in changing environments. Fitts and Posner's Motor Learning Stages
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stages of learning are the cognitive stage, the associative stage, and the autonomous stage. Cognitive Stage the learner makes lots of errors, is inconsistent, and focuses heavily on the skill cues. During this stage, the teacher is more direct with instructions, which include both verbal instructions and demonstrations, to help the learner understand the movements. This first stage is similar to Gentile's stage 1 (getting the idea of the movement). (Fitts and Posner's Motor Learning Stages) Associative Stage the learner has grasp on the skill and understands the skill movement patterns. This learner will start to become more consistent in movement patterns. As such, they will rely less on skill cues and begin to refine movement by trial, error, and feedback, which aids in the development of self- correction skills. During the associative stage, the teacher designs the practice activities after identifying the errors and providing corrective feedback. (Fitts and Posner's Motor Learning Stages) Autonomous Stage the movements become automatic and the student can perform skills independently. The learner is able to self-correct during the autonomous stage. During this stage, the teacher should focus on motivation and design activities that refine the movements. (Fitts and Posner's Motor Learning Stages)
Closed skills occur in environments that are stable and predictable, like golf. Closed skills are often introduced when teaching novice learners, so that they can focus solely on the skill, or when teaching a closed and controlled activity, like archery. Activities that are open in team sports are often taught in progression from closed (e.g., dribbling in isolation) to open skills (e.g., dribbling during game play) to increase competency. Motor Learning the study of skill acquisition processes and includes the factors that help or hinder motor skill performance. Motor learning can be a permanent or semi-permanent change. Once a person learns how to ride a bike, they will not forget-even after a long absence of riding. Motor learning cannot be observed directly. Instead, performance is observed over time to evaluate consistency and proficiency in a movement skill, which aids in making a determination about whether or not learning has occurred. Motor Performance the demonstration of a skill or set of skills. In contrast to motor learning, motor performance is not permanent, as it is contingent upon other factors. While one may have learned how to perform a jump shot in basketball, the success of the jump shot will differ based on the changing environment. Further, the individual's fitness level, fatigue, stress, and other factors impact performance. In contrast to motor learning, motor performance can be observed. Bernstein's motor learning stages
breaking down motor tasks into smaller pieces to develop regulation of individual movements, then integrating them to develop coordination between those movements. Bernstein's motor learning stage 1 freezing the limbs, which involves regulating as many degrees of freedom necessary to produce the desired movement. (For example, the leg and foot action of an overhand throw might be restricted so that the novice learner can focus on the arm motion of the throw.) Bernstein's motor learning Stage 2 releasing the limbs as degrees of freedom gradually increase as skills become more proficient. Bernstein's motor learning Stage 3 exploiting the environment, (expert stage), which is when the learner is able to perform the tasks in a variety of situations. For example, throwing at different speeds, throwing while running, throwing at various distances and levels, and throwing with defenders all exploit the environment in different ways. Knowledge of performance is the quality of a performance. It is often felt by the learner while executing the movement or observed while watching the movement. These feelings or observations help to identify either errors that need correction or actions that need to be replicated to promote consistent performance, a process known as descriptive feedback. Descriptive Feedback.
"An example is someone's knowledge of how to properly swing a baseball bat impeding their ability to learn how to properly swing a golf club." Zero Transfer when a previously learned skill has no impact on the learning of a future skill. The skills are usually unrelated (though not always). " An example, dribbling in basketball has little to no impact on dribbling in soccer. However, positive transfer is often evident during invasion games (team sports that involve two teams with the goal of scoring an object into a goal) such as these because the offensive and defensive concepts and strategies in basketball and soccer are the same." Sandwich Method three-step method of providing feedback is recommended:
- Positive specific feedback is given on what the student is doing well.
- Specific constructive feedback is given on what is wrong and why or how it impedes success.
- Positive specific feedback completes the feedback loop by aivina evnlirit cues on hnw to correctlu nerform the skill Feedback information that teachers provide to students to improve motor skills.
General Feedback Feedback that is vague and not focused on the skill performance. It includes statements like "good job" and "nice shot." Specific Feedback Feedback that is explicit and focuses on the skill action. example is, "You demonstrated early preparation of your racket by moving it behind you before striking the ball." Positive Feedback Feedback that Is praise and focuses on what is correct. Negative Feedback Feedback that focuses on what is wrong. Constructive Feedback Feedback that gives specific details on what the student is doing incorrectly and explicit details on how to improve. example feedback is, "You are standing up too straight during your golf swing. You need to keep your knees bent as you make contact with the ball." Theory of Deliberate Practice
- Skills must be developed through practice, even among those with natural ability. While it is often assumed that some students have "natural talent," practice is still necessary for improvement and permanency.
Auditory Discrimination is the ability to differentiate between sounds (e.g., loud or soft, the sound of a cow versus the sound a dog). Visual Discrimination allows students to differentiate between images (people, sizes, shapes, colors, objects). Kinesthetic Discrimination is the ability to detect small changes in muscle movement, which involves large gross motor movements. Constraints boundaries that limit or promote movement options. Individual Constraints
- structural constraints, which include physical body structures (e.g., height, weight, gender),
- functional constraints, which include psychological (e.g., arousal) and cognitive Task Constraints movement goals, game rules, and equipment used in movement and games. Examples include ball size (e.g., women's vs men's basketball size) and game rules (e.g., regulation or modified rules). Adjusting ball size can make the task easier or more difficult. Environmental Constraints
external factors and also have two sub-categories:
- physical environment, which includes the space (e.g., indoor or outdoor), lights, temperature, and weather, and
- sociocultural environment, which includes social and cultural aspects that impact physical activity engagement and may include gender (e.g., beliefs that girls should not be engaged in physical activity or develop muscular bodies), race, ethnicity, religion, and social class. Social or Observational Learning Theory acknowledges that one's behavior influences others and vice versa. Three elements of social learning theory are modeling (watching others), reinforcement (rewarding or penalizing), and social comparison (the evaluation of skills to the model or a peer). For example, demonstrations, which include learning through observation or the ability to follow a model, are social learning theory methods used in physical education settings. The downside of this theory is that teachers are unable to control. all observational learning, since students can learn or observe motor skills outside of class. To ensure effectiveness of observational learning, Bandura suggests a four-step process:
- Attention: students must focus instructional or skill cues
- Retention: students need to remember the demonstrated model (reinforced by skill cues and mental imagery)
Emotional Knowledge the awareness of emotions in other people. Emotional Development learning what feelings and emotions are, understanding how and why they occur, recognising your own feelings and those of others, and developing effective ways for managing those feelings. Self-esteem how one feels about themselves. Competence Motivation desire to continue to engage in physical activities even when difficult. Self-efficacy the belief in one's ability to perform motor skills. Techniques Used to Evaluate Motor Skills include observation and comparison to the model or skill cues. Video analysis software (e.g., Coach's Eye) is also effective, as students' skills are performed and recorded, then replayed simultaneously with the model performance or skill cues, which is used to evaluate strong and weak performance areas. Self-assessments, in which the student checks their performance according to the model or cues, can also be used. Pre-assessment and post-assessments of skills is another way to evaluate improvement in motor skills. Tracking student performance over time
also provides information on the consistency or stability of a performance and evaluates whether students are able to transfer skills or adapt to other situations. Techniques Used To Detect Errors In Motor Performance familiarizing students with the appropriate skill tasks. Using videos tends to work best, as they can be replayed. Students should practice skills, observe their performance, and compare it to the desired outcome (self-assessment and reflection). During this strategy, students should be encouraged to identify and solve their own skill problem and follow it with practice. Attentional focus cues would accompany the video analysis of the skills so that students can develop an understanding and vocabulary for error detection. This technique helps students pay attention to relevant information and begin to detect and correct errors independently. Locomotor Movements fundamental movement skills that allow an individual to move from one place to another. movements: walking, skipping, jumping, hopping, leaping, sliding, galloping, and running. Non-locomotor fundamental movements that consist of moving without traveling. Movements :Bending, twisting, curling, stretching, reaching, pulling, turning, and swaying Rhythmic activity
the non-throwing side faces the target and the arm is back with a high elbow. wind-up phase. action of bringing the arm back with the elbow leading. execution phase step is taken with the opposite foot as the elbow leads the arm forward. During this phase, the trunk of the body rotates internally towards the target. Purpose of Imitating animals or engaging in animal walks to aid develop of movement skills Animal walks help students gain understanding of body awareness, body control, spatial awareness, effort, directions, and levels as only the body is needed to accomplish them. Animal walks also allow students to use their imaginations by drawing on previous animal movement knowledge and experiences. Teachers can also check for movement concept understandings by how students respond to animal cues. Examples of animal walk cues include "walk like a sloth," to illustrate the concept of slow movement; "move like a cheetah," to illustrate the concept of fast movement; "show me how an elephant moves," which illustrates a large shape and slow speed; and "slide like a snake," which illustrates a low level and curved pathway. Students also develop strength ("crawl like a bear"), cardiovascular fitness ("run like a fox"), and improve flexibility ("stretch like a dog") from engaging in animal walks, which are needed for more complex skills (chasing, fleeing). Mirroring when partners are positioned face-to-face and one partner copies the other, matching
when partners are positioned side-by-side and one partner copies the other leading and following when one partner leads and the other follows. Teacher Led Movements Techniques that allows students to follow the movements of the teacher refinement of manipulative skills demonstrations, written and verbal cues, feedback (peer, self, teacher), and video analysis. movement concepts (spatial awareness, effort, relationships) the ideas used to modify or enrich the range and effectiveness of skill employment. Examples of include walk fast, walk slow, walk on your tip toes, walk on the low beam, walk on the high beam, walk in a circle, walk in a zigzag pattern, walk clockwise, walk counterclockwise; jump high, jump low, jump over, jump alone, jump with a partner; crawl under, crawl in a circle; hop on top, hop over. Agility ability to move quickly in various directions while maintaining control. Balance what keeps the body stable and upright, which helps keep the body in control.
performing a skill correctly until they view their performance. Video analysis is often considered the gold standard when giving feedback, but to increase effectiveness, it should be used consistently and be paired with verbal feedback. Teachers can also post video demonstrations and analysis online for students for ongoing review to further develop skill competencies. Power strength multiplied by speed (strength x speed), center of mass the equal distribution of the body's weight. Time either fast or slow, which is the speed, beat, or pace in movement. Effort movement concept category that includes time, force, and flow. Force Mass multiplied by Acceleration Buoyancy the ability to float in water or air. Drag the amount of resistance that occurs in the air, water, and the body that can negatively impact one's buoyancy.
Body type the amount of muscle mass and fat mass in the body. streamlined straight, position and synchronizing breathing with strokes. Exercise Biomechanics and Sport Biomechanics the study of forces (internal and external) that impact human movement during physical activity and sports with the goal to improve performance. law of inertia which states that the objects or the body will continue to move or remain unmoved until met with an unbalanced force. moment of inertia the difficulty in getting a body or object to rotate around an axis. (depend on the position, size, and speed of the performer to determine how easy or difficult it will be to roll.) angular velocity the increase in speed around an axis (or the angle turned through per second). Torque the force used during twisting actions that often cause rotation.
