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Mechanisms & Body
1. Which ions directly control the contraction of muscles? ✅ Calcium 2. Which molecule prevents a muscle contraction from occurring when the muscle is at rest? ✅ Troponin-tropomyosin system 3. What is the main energy source or fuel for skeletal muscle contraction? ✅ Adenosine triphosphate system (ATP) 4. How many bones are in the skeleton? What are the divisions of the human skeleton? ✅ 206 bones total Axial skeleton Appendicular skeleton 5. What type of joint is connected by a fibrous joint capsule? ✅ Synovial joints 6. Which component of the bone matrix gives bone its tensile strength? ✅ Collagen fibers 7. What is the major difference between compact and spongy bone? ✅ Compact bone is highly organized, solid, extremely strong, and contains Haversian systems. Lamellae are arranged in concentric layers. ✅ Spongy bone is less complex, lacks Haversian systems, and has lamellae arranged in trabeculae. 8. When describing a freely movable joint, which term should be used? ✅ Diarthrosis (synovial joints) 9. Which type(s) of muscle tissue is involuntary? ✅ Smooth muscle cells
Mechanisms & Body
10. The skeletal muscles are encased in a connective tissue framework made of? ✅ Bone, epithelium, cartilage 11. Identify the structure of the contractile subunit of the myofibril: ✅ Each myofibril contains sarcomeres, which appear at intervals. 12. What are the thick and thin filaments responsible for muscle contraction? ✅ Thick filaments: Myosin ✅ Thin filaments: Actin ✅ Troponin-tropomyosin complex regulates binding sites ✅ Sarcomere: Functional unit of myofibril ✅ Myofibril: Most abundant subcellular muscle component 13. What are potential clinical findings in rhabdomyolysis, and what lab values would result? ✅ Classic triad: Muscle pain, weakness, dark urine ✅ Labs: Elevated Creatine kinase (CK) Hypocalcemia →late hypercalcemia Loss of K⁺, phosphate, nucleotides, creatinine, creatine 14. Describe Rheumatoid Arthritis (RA): ✅ Chronic, systemic, inflammatory autoimmune disease Joint swelling, tenderness Destruction of synovial joints →disability 15. Describe classic gouty arthritis: ✅ Cause: Monosodium urate crystal deposition in joints →inflammation ✅ Signs/Symptoms: Tophi (white nodules), hyperuricemia 16. What causes the inflammatory symptoms of classic gouty arthritis? ✅ Deposition of uric acid crystals in joints
Mechanisms & Body
23. Name the six P’s of compartment syndrome: ✅ 1. Pain 2. Poikilothermia 3. Paresthesia 4. Paralysis 5. Pulselessness 6. Pallor 24. What does the somatic nervous system control? ✅ Voluntary skeletal muscles 25. Where do nerve impulses travel fastest? ✅ Along myelinated axons 26. Which neurons have the best capacity for regeneration? ✅ Myelinated neurons in the peripheral nervous system 27. How do neurotransmitters interact with postsynaptic membranes? ✅ Bind to membrane receptors → open ion channels →Na⁺ and Ca²⁺ influx 28. Which brain area controls reflex activities for HR and BP? ✅ Brain stem 29. What are the meninges of the brain? ✅ Pia mater (inner) Arachnoid mater (middle) Dura mater (outer) 30. What are the characteristics of cerebrospinal fluid (CSF)? ✅
Mechanisms & Body
Clear fluid Circulates in ventricles & subarachnoid space Absorbed by arachnoid villi
31. What ensures collateral blood flow in the brain? ✅ Internal carotid & vertebral arteries 32. What happens with vagus nerve stimulation? ✅ ↓ HR, ↓ heart contractility, ↓BP 33. What are the main neurotransmitters of the autonomic nervous system? ✅ Parasympathetic: Acetylcholine Sympathetic: Epinephrine, Norepinephrine 34. Which receptor action results in pupil dilation, vasoconstriction, ↓GI motility, and goosebumps? ✅ Alpha-1 (α1) 35. Which neurotransmitter causes pain perception? ✅ Substance P 36. Define chronic pain: ✅ Persistent/intermittent Sudden or insidious onset Lasts ≥3–6 months 37. Define acute (referred) pain: ✅ Sudden onset Relieved after stimulus removed
Mechanisms & Body
Endocrine system
44. Define proprioception and what causes it: ✅ Awareness of the position of the body and its parts Loss caused by vestibular dysfunction and neuropathy 45. What are the two components of consciousness? ✅ Arousal and Awareness 46. Define arousal: ✅ State of alertness mediated by the reticular activating system (RAS) Changes: structural, metabolic, psychogenic Manifestations: o Level of consciousness changes o Pattern of breathing o Pupillary reaction o Oculomotor & motor responses o Vomiting, yawning, hiccups 47. Define awareness: ✅ Encompasses all cognitive functions: memory, language, executive systems
Mechanisms & Body
48. What are the 6 components of total brain death? ✅ 1. Completion of all diagnostics with no recovery possibility 2. Unresponsive coma 3. No spontaneous respiration (apnea) 4. No brainstem function 5. Isoelectric EEG 6. Persistence for appropriate observation period 49. What is a closed head injury and how do pupils respond? What posturing is observed? ✅ Pupils dilate , and decorticate posturing is seen 50. Response of B/P, breathing, and heart rate to increased intracranial pressure: ✅ B/P: decreases Breathing: becomes shallow HR: decreases 51. Spinal shock is characterized by: ✅ Complete loss of reflex function Flaccid paralysis Absence of sensation Loss of bladder/rectal control ↓Blood pressure, bradycardia
Mechanisms & Body
56. Pathophysiology of Multiple Sclerosis (MS): ✅ Chronic, immune-mediated degeneration of CNS myelin , plaque formation, and axonal loss 57. Signs of meningitis and its types: ✅ Symptoms: Fever, headache, nuchal rigidity , ↓consciousness Types: Bacterial, viral, fungal Causes: Bacteria, viruses, fungi, parasites, toxins 58. Who is at greatest risk for a stroke (CVA) by ethnicity/gender? ✅ African Americans and women 59. What is erythropoietin and where is it produced? ✅ A hormone produced in the kidneys that stimulates red blood cell production 60. Conditions that affect erythropoietin release: ✅ Kidney failure Chronic diseases (HIV/AIDS, cancer, rheumatoid arthritis)
Mechanisms & Body
61. How is Vitamin B12 related to erythropoietin? ✅ Required for erythroblast proliferation during erythropoiesis 62. Which electrolytes are related to platelet function? ✅ Potassium and magnesium 63. Role of fibrin, fibrinogen, and thrombin in clotting: ✅ Fibrin: Forms a mesh for clots Fibrinogen: Converted into fibrin by thrombin Thrombin: Converts fibrinogen into fibrin 64. How is the liver involved in blood clotting? ✅ Produces prothrombin and clotting factors Stores blood and blood cells 65. What is the normal WBC count? ✅ 4,500–11,000/mm³ 66. Abundance and granules in blood cells: ✅ Erythrocytes : Most abundant
Mechanisms & Body
Hypochromic: Pale RBCs, ↓Hgb Hyperchromic: RBCs with ↑Hgb than normal
72. Contributing factors to folate deficiency anemia: ✅ Alcoholism Folate deficiency Chronic malnourishment 73. What is iron deficiency anemia & its signs/symptoms? ✅ Lack of iron → ↓RBC production S/S: Fatigue, pale skin, tachycardia, SOB, dizziness, cold extremities 74. Define sideroblastic anemia and polycythemia vera: ✅ Sideroblastic anemia: Bone marrow can’t form normal RBCs Polycythemia vera: Bone marrow makes too many RBCs 75. Labs in sideroblastic anemia: ✅ High iron , bilirubin , transferrin ✅ Low Hgb and Hct
Mechanisms & Body
76. Which lymphoma is diagnosed by Reed-Sternberg cells? ✅ Hodgkin’s lymphoma 77. Multiple myeloma results in pain due to what pathophysiologic process? ✅ Infiltration of plasma cells in the bone marrow leads to a loss of osteocytes, which leads to bone destruction 78. What is ITP and what causes this disease? ✅ ITP (Idiopathic Thrombocytopenic Purpura) is a condition characterized by low platelet levels , which can lead to excessive bruising and bleeding. Cause: Autoantibodies against platelet-specific antigens , leading to increased destruction of platelets by the spleen.
