Download NURS 8022 EXAM 1 PATHO|2025-2026| 150 QUESTIONS&CORRECT ANSWERS|ALREADY GRADED A+ and more Exams Pathophysiology in PDF only on Docsity!
NURS 8022 EXAM 1 PATHO| 2025 - 2026| 150
QUESTIONS&CORRECT ANSWERS|ALREADY GRADED A+
Negative Feedback Promotes stability; cancels out the original response. Ex: High FSBS, increased insulin by the pancreas Positive Feedback Promotes a change in one direction; instability, DISEASE. Ex: Blood clotting, platelet cascade Proteins Provide selectivity to a membrane Integral proteins channels, pores, carriers, enzymes, receptors, second messengers Peripheral proteins Enzymes, intracellular, signal mediatiors ATP Converted to ADP to produce energy; chemical bonds between 2nd and 3rd phosphate groups have abundant energy Simple/passive diffusion Occurs down a concentration gradient; from HIGH to LOW concentration Simple/passive diffusion
Diffuse from high to lower pressure; diffusion will not occur if the membrane is non permeable to the molecule Factors that affect the net rate of diffusion
- Concentration difference (high to low)
- Electrical Potential (EMF)- charge difference on each side of the membrane matters TOO!
- Pressure difference (higher pressure results in increased energy) Osmosis Passive transport of fluid across a membrane; from an area of low solute concentration to high solute concentration (high FLUID to low FLUID) Primary Active Transport Molecules are "pumped" against ("uphill") a concentration; DIRECT USE OF ENERGY Secondary Active Transport Trasport is driven by the energy STORED in the concentration gradient of another molecule (Na+); INDIRECT USE OF ENERGY Na+- K+ ATPase Carrier protein located on the plasma membrane of alll cells; enzyme that converts ATP to ADP to release energy
- Important role in regulating osmotic balance
- Requires one to two thirds of cells energy Ca2+ ATPase Maintains a low cystosolic Ca2+ concentration H+ ATPase
the diffusion potential that exactly balances or opposes the tendency for diffusion down the concentration difference. If a membrane were permeable to only K+ then... K+ would diffuse down its concentration gradient until the electrical potential across the membrane countered diffusion. (moving from inside the cell down its concentration gradient to the outside of the cell). Potassium Nernst Potential Also called equilibrium potential; if the membrane were only permeate to K+; the Vm would be - 94mv. Sodium Nernst Potential If the membrane were only permeable to Na+ then the Vm would be +61mv. The Goldman Hodgkin Katz Equation The resting membrane potential is closest to the equilibrium potential for the ion with the highest permeability! Depolarization The process during the action potential when sodium is rushing into the cell causing the interior to become more positive. (less negative) Hyperpolarization The movement of the membrane potential of a cell away from rest potential in a more negative direction. Threshold potential Membrane potential at which occurrence of the AP is inevitable
Overshoot Portion of the AP where the membrane potential is positive (cell interior is positive) Undershoot Also called hyper polarizing after potential; the portion of the AP, followed by repolarization where at membrane potential is more negative than at rest. Inward current Flow of positive charge into the cell These currents depolarize the membrane potential (or make it less negative and more positive) Ex: Na+ flow into the cell during the UPSTROKE of the AP Outward Current Flow of positive charge out of the cell; these currents hyper polarize the membrane potential (making the membrane more negative and less positive) Example: flow of K+ out of the cell during the depolarization phase of AP, creating down stroke depolarization NA+ moves in Repolarization K+ moves out Mylenation Myelin decreased ion flow through the membrane Schwann Cells
Inhibitory Will cause hyper polarization of the postsynaptic cell (making the cell negative) Neuromuscular Transmission specialized synapse between a motor neuron and a muscle fiber Where does synapse occur? On the motor end plate Opening of the nACh receptor channels produces: An end plate potential; which will normally initiate an AP if the local spread of current is sufficient to open voltage sodium channels. Inhibitor drug: Curariform drugs (D-turbocurarie) Block nicotinic Ach channels by competing for AcH binding site reduces ampltitude of end plate potential therefore no AP Inhibitor drug: Botulinum toxin Decreases the release of AcH from nerve terminals Insufficient stimulus to initiate an AP. AcH like drugs (Methacholine, carbachol, nicotine) bind and activate nicotinic AcH receptors Not destroyed by AcHE- prolonged effect Anti AcHe drugs (neostigmine, physostigmine, diisopropyl flurophosphate or "nerve gas") inactivate acetylcholinesterace; can treat MG
Myesthenia Gravis Autoimmune disorder that attacks Ach nicotinic cholinergic receptors at NM junction. This results in weakness in face and legs. Treatments include anti-cholinesterases and immunosuppresive drugs. Sarcomere is a functional contracting unit of the muscle fiber Thick filaments myosin Thin filaments Actin, tropomyosin and troponin Troponin T attaches troponin complex to tropomyosin Troponin I Along with tropomyosin inhibits the interaction of actin and myosin by covering myosin binding site of actin Troponin C is a Ca2+ binding protein that plays central role in the initiation of contraction What is important in excitation contraction coupling? CALCIUM! Relaxation in muscle contraction
connective tissue A body tissue that provides support for the body and connects all of its parts; bone, cartilage, adipose (fatty tissue) muscle tissue A body tissue that contracts or shortens, making body parts move. Has generous blood supply nervous tissue A body tissue that carries electrical messages back and forth between the brain and every other part of the body. Atrophy decrease in cell size hypertrophy increase in cell size Hyperplasia increase in number of cells Metaplasia Mature cell type is replaced by a different mature cell type Dysplasia abnormal development or growth of cells, tissues, or organs; does not indicate cancer
Hypertrophy excessive development; increased work demand or hormones Hyperplasia Increased rate of cell division; liver Pathophysiology of Cellular Injury
- ATP depletion
- Oxygen and oxygen deprived free radicals
- Intracellular calcium increases.
- Defects in membrane permeability Hypoxic injury Ischemia- arteriosclerosis and thrombosis common causes Anxoia- total lack of oxygen (MI or embolism) Cellular responses- decrease in ATP, causing failure of sodium potassium pump ; CELL SWELLING Reperfusion injury- additional injury occurs when O2 is restored Free radicals and reactive oxygen species Electrically uncharged atom or group of atoms having an unpaired electron that damage: Lipid peroxidation Alteration of proteins Alteration of DNA Mitochondria Chemical injury direct toxicity to the cell
- lead ethanol carbon monoxide mercury
Phagocytic cells Immune and inflammatory substances Histamine, antibodies, lymphokines, complement, and proteases Membrane alterations Infections genetic and epigenetic factors Nuclear alterations; alterations in plasma membrane Injurous nutritional imbalance proteins, carbs, lipids, vitamins Temp extremes and climate change Hypothermic and hyperthermic injury Ionizing radiation enough energy to dislodge electrons from atoms, forming ions; capable of causing cancer (gamma, X-rays, UV) Cellular accumulations (infiltrations)
- Water
- Lipids & carbohydrates
- Glycogen
- Proteins
- Pigments (melanin, hemoproteins, bilirubin)
- Calcium- calcification
- Urate- gout Cellular swelling (oncosis) most common degenrative change; shift of ECF fluid into cells
Cellular Death Necrosis- inflammatory change Aptosis- cell death Apoptosis programmed cell death involving a cascade of specific cellular events leading to death and destruction of the cell Frality Wasting syndrome of aging DNA polymerase adds new nucleotides and proofs the new protein; if not correct, the incorrect nucleotide is excised and replaced Transcription and translation DNA code is transported from the nucleus to the cytoplasm; and protein is subsequently formed RNA mediates what transcription and translation What site does protein synthesis occur? Ribosome In triploid and tetraploid fetuses _____________ They do not survive or are stillborn or spontaneously aborted
Proband the person from whom the pedigree is initiated; usually the first person in the family diagnosed or seen in the clinic Expressivity Variation in a phenotype associated with a particular genotype; example: von Recklinghausean disease (type 1 nurofibroimatosis)- autosomal dominant ; mutation in normal tumor suppressor gene; leads to tumor formation Autosomal Recessive Inheritance rare; many individuals are carriers; example: cystic fibrosis: gene forms sodium channels with defective transport X Linked Inheritence Duchenne muscular dystrophy; deletion of DMD gene causes dystrophin not to work properly; consequently muscle cells don't survive Incidence rate number of new cases of a disease over a specific time Prevalence rate Proportion of the population affected by a disease at a specific point in time Relative risk- ratio incidence rate in exposed group/incidence rate in unexposed group Psychiatric disorders bipolar disorder affective disorder and schiphrenia are genetic
Genetic predispostion Can be altered by environmental choices; life style modification benign tumor grow slowly, well defined capsule, non invasive, well differentiated, low miotic index, does not metastasize; - OMA Malignant tumor grow rapidly, not incapsulated, invasive poorly differentiated, high miotic index, can spread Carcinomas malignant epithelial tumors adenocarcinoma cancerous tumor of glandular tissue or ducatal Sarcomas Cancers that arise in the connective tissue cells, including bones, ligaments, and muscles. Lymphomas cancers of the immune system; lymphatic tissue Leukemia cancer of white blood cells carcinoma in situ
chromosome instability Accelerate the loss of tumor suppressor genes and the over expression of oncogenes Telomeres protective caps on the end of chromosomes Telomerase An enzyme that catalyzes the lengthening of telomeres. The enzyme includes a molecule of RNA that serves as a template for new telomere segments; makes it possible for the cell to keep growing Invasion local spread, tumor cells grow into adjacent tissues Stage 1 Cancer cancer confined to organ of origin Stage 2 Cancer cancer that is locally invasive Stage 3 Cancer extensive local and regional spread Stage 4 Cancer distant metastasis
Chachexia severe wasting of tissues due to long-standing chronic diseases and malignancies Epigenetics Change in genetic expression (phenotype) without DNA mutation obesity and cancer Increases the risk for cancers of the colon, endometrium, and possibly kidney and pancreas.
