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NURS 6501 ADVANCED PATOPHYSIOLOGY MIDTERM 4
ACTUAL EXAM NEWSET VERSION - 2025/2026- QUESTIONS
AND VERIFIED ANSWERS ( 100 % SUCCEESS)
What are peroxisomes? involved in the production and breakdown of hydrogen peroxide What are the three general components of an eukaryotic cell? the plasma membrane, the cytoplasm, and the intracellular organelles. What causes the release of lysosomal enzemes? Cellular injury causing cellular self-digestion What is the location and function of the nucleus? the largest membrane-bound organelle and is found usually in the cell's center. The chief functions of the nucleus are cell division and control of genetic information. What is Cytoplasm?
an aqueous solution (cytosol) that fills the space between the nucleus and the plasma membrane. What is the endoplasmic reticulum and what does it specialize in? a network of tubular channels (cisternae) that extend throughout the outer nuclear membrane. It specializes in the synthesis and transport of protein and lipid components of most of the organelles What is the Golgi complex and what does it do? a network of smooth membranes and vesicles located near the nucleus. The Golgi complex is responsible for processing and packaging proteins into secretory vesicles What are lysosomes and what do they do? saclike structures that originate from the Golgi complex and contain digestive enzymes. These enzymes are responsible for digesting most cellular substances to their basic form, such as amino acids, fatty acids, and carbohydrates Importance of proteins in disease The major workhorses of the cell, if misfolded they can cause diseases
What do protein receptors do? on the plasma membrane, enable the cell to interact with other cells and with extracellular substances What means accomplish cell-to-cell adhesions? (1) the extracellular membrane, (2) cell adhesion molecules in the cell's plasma membrane, and (3) specialized cell junctions. What makes up the extracellular matrix and what does it do? (1) fibrous structural proteins (collagen and elastin), (2) adhesive glycoproteins, and (3) proteoglycans and hyaluronic acid. The matrix helps regulate cell growth, movement, and differentiation. How do cells communicate? (1) they form protein channels (gap junctions); (2) they display receptors that affect intracellular processes or other cells in direct physical contact; and (3) they use receptor proteins inside the target cell. How is intercellular signaling done? contact-dependent, paracrine, hormonal, neurohormonal, and neurotransmitter.
What is ATP? Adenosine Triphosphate - ENERGY - is required for active transport. What is anabolism? energy-using process of metabolism What is catabolism? the energy-releasing process of metabolism What is passive transport? The movement of materials across the cell membrane without using cellular energy, water and small electrically uncharged molecules, done through osmosis What is oxidative phosphorylation? occurs in the mitochondria and is the mechanism by which the energy produced from carbohydrates, fats, and proteins is transferred to ATP. What is endocytosis and exocytosis? Endo= into the cell (engulf). Exo= out of the cell (excrete).
What is diffusion? The movement of particles from an area of high concentration to an area of low concentration. What happens after endocytosis occurs? lysosomal enzymes process and digest material What is osmosis? diffusion of water across a selectively permeable membrane What is filtration? the measurement of water and solutes through a membrane because of a greater pushing pressure. What is hydrostatic pressure? the mechanical force of water pushing against cellular membranes. How are cells specialized? through the process of differentiation or maturation
What are the eight specialized cellular functions? movement, conductivity, metabolic absorption, secretion, excretion, respiration, reproduction, and communication What is oncotic pressure? Osmotic pressure exerted by colloids in solution. What is osmotic pressure? The amount of hydrostatic pressure required to oppose the osmotic movement of water What is the resting membrane potential? Difference in electrical charge across the membrane at rest What is action potential? the change in electrical potential associated with the passage of an impulse along the membrane of a muscle cell or nerve cell. How does DNA replicate? DNA molecule unwinds and each strand is a template for complementary base pairing; each daughter helix contains an intact strand from the parent helix and a newly synthesized strand therefore DNA replication is semiconservative
What is translation? the decoding of an mRNA message into a protein What are diploid somatic cells? Body Cells What are haploid gametes? sperm and egg cells What is a karyotype? A display of every pair of homologous chromosomes within a cell, organized according to size and shape How common are chromosome abnormalities? 1 in 150 live births, leading cause of mental retardation and miscarriage What is polyploidy? condition in which an organism has extra sets of chromosomes
What is aneuploidy? Abnormal number of chromosomes. What is trisomy? 3 copies of a chromosome What is monosomy? missing one chromosome What are alleles? different versions of the same gene Compare monosomies and trisomes monosomies cause more severe physical defects than do trisomies, illustrating the principle that the loss of chromosome material has more severe consequences than the duplication of chromosome material. What are the four abnormalities of chromosome structures?
marriage between blood relatives What gene determines sex? SRY gene, typically on the Y chromosome. If a Y chromosome lacks SRY gene an XY female can be produced, also if an X chromosome has an SRY gene an XX male may be produced What is a sex-influenced trait? sex influenced inheritance are genetic trends based on sex
- i.e. gene that expresses for baldness in men does not for women Why would X-linked recessive genes be seen more in males? because males need only one copy of the gene to express the disease Why are skipped generation diseases seen in X-linked diseases? Biologic fathers cannot pass X-linked genes to their sons and the gene can be transmitted through carrier females What is a sex limited characteristic? one that occurs only in one sex
What are polygenic traits? traits that are controlled by two or more genes Prediction of disease A marker locus, when closely linked to a disease-gene locus, can be used to predict whether an individual will develop a genetic disease. What are multifactorial traits? traits that depend on multiple genes combined with environmental influences What is cellular adaptation? a reversible, structural, or functional response both to normal or physiologic conditions and to adverse or pathologic conditions What is the threshold of liability? In many multifactorial traits, once the threshold of liability has been crossed, the disease may be expressed.
What is metaplasia? a change in stress on an organ that leads to a change in cell type Most commonly involves a change of one type of surface epithelium to another *metaplastic cells are better able to handle the new stress metaplasia occurs via reprogramming of stem cells which then produce the new cell type What are free radicals? unstable oxygen-containing molecules that can damage the cells of the body and possibly contribute to the increased risk of chronic diseases What is dysplasia? an abnormal change in the size, shape, and organization of mature tissue cells. It is considered atypical rather than a true adaptational change. What can cause cell injury? lack of oxygen (hypoxia), free radicals, caustic or toxic chemicals, infectious agents, inflammatory and immune responses, genetic factors, insufficient nutrients, or physical and mechanical trauma from many causes What are the four biochemical themes associated with cell injury?
(1) ATP depletion, resulting in mitochondrial damage; (2) accumulation of oxygen and oxygen-derived free radicals, causing membrane damage; (3) protein folding defects; and (4) increased intracellular calcium concentration and loss of calcium steady state. What is the sequence of events in cell death? decreased ATP production, failure of active transport mechanisms (the sodium- potassium pump), cellular swelling, detachment of ribosomes from the ER, cessation of protein synthesis, mitochondrial swelling as a result of calcium accumulation, vacuolation, leakage of digestive enzymes from lysosomes, autodigestion of intracellular structures, lysis of the plasma membrane, and death. What happens first in a hypoxic injury? the cessation of blood flow into vessels that supply the cell with oxygen and nutrients (ischemia) How can deprivation of essential nutrients (proteins, carbohydrates, lipids, and vitamins) lead to cell injury? by altering cellular structure and function, particularly of transport mechanisms, chromosomes, the nucleus, and DNA What are the two categories of intracellular accumulations?
What are the systemic manifestations of cellular injury? fever, leukocytosis, increased heart rate, pain, and serum elevations of enzymes in the plasma What is necrosis? rapid loss of the plasma membrane structure, organelle swelling, mitochondrial dysfunction, and the lack of features of apoptosis What is apoptosis? regulated or programmed cell death and is characterized by "dropping off" of cellular fragments, called apoptotic bodies What is necroptosis? programmed necrosis What are the four types of necrosis? coagulative, liquefactive, caseous, and fatty
What is endoplasmic reticulum stress? Excessive accumulation of misfolded proteins in the ER What is dysregulated apoptosis? excessive or insufficient apoptosis What are some important factors in aging? increased damage to the cell, reduced capacity to divide, reduced ability to repair damaged DNA, and increased likelihood of defective protein balance or homeostasis. What is sarcopenia? loss of muscle mass and strength What is cachexia? weakness and wasting of the body due to severe chronic illness What is somatic death? death of the entire organism
