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Mediterranean Society: The Roman Phase
For an incredibly long period of time the Romans were able to unite the Mediterranean world to an extent unmatched in history. By the first century C.E. the Romans had extended their control over the entire Mediterranean basin, including parts of southwest Asia, north Africa, continental Europe, and Britain. Through the combination of a centralized authority and a normally tolerant regime, the Romans were able to foster close connections between the different ethnic and religious groups of this cosmopolitan empire. Roman control also allowed for a rich cultural and religious interchange. The rise of Christianity to a world religion is closely connected to the Roman empire. From Kingdom to Republic The history of Rome stretches back to around 2000 B.C.E. and the arrival of Indo-European tribes into Italy. While scholars have serious doubts about the epic legends of Aeneas and Romulus, they do acknowledge the influence of the Etruscans on the early Romans. Statue The Etruscans, who sometimes served as kings, dominated Rome until driven out by Roman nobles in 509 B.C.E. Tombs and Women Kingdom of Rome Kings In all there was said to have been seven kings of Rome covering a period of over two hundred years. The first king of Rome was the mythical Romulus , the fabled founder, was the first. To him is attributed the founding, the extension to four of the Roman hill, - the Capitoline, Aventine, Caelian and Quirinal -, and the infamous rape of the Sabine women. The second king of Rome, Numa Pompilius , owing to the influence of his adviser, the nymph and prophetess Egeria, enjoyed a peaceful reign. Religion
The third king, however, Tullius Hositilius , was responsible for the destruction of Alba Longa and the removal of its inhabitants to Rome. The fourth king, Ancus Marcius , extended the city further, built the first bridge across the across the Tiber and founded Ostia at the mouth of that river to serve Rome as a seaport.- All evidence of the city's increasing power. The fifth king, Tarquinius Priscus , was an Etruscan, though how he secured his kingship is unknown. He continued the work of conquest, but found time to build the first sewer, the Cloaca Maxima, laid out the Circus Maximus, and began to erect on the Capitoline Hill a great temple to Jupiter. The sixth king, Servius Tullius , was a celebrated monarch of great achievements. He made the division of the people into tribes and classes, thus setting up a constitution in which wealth was the dominant consideration. Also he is said to have enlarged the city by building a wall around it, five miles in circumference with nineteen gates, embracing all the seven hills of Rome. Shortly afterwards a massive temple of ca. 60 metres length and 50 width (begun by Tarquinius Priscus) was dedicated on the Capitoline Hill to Jupiter. The seventh king, Tarquinius Superbus , was Rome's last. He continued with great vigour the work of extending the power of the city, and the founding of colonies by him was the beginning of Rome's path to supremacy of the world. But on other matters Tarquinius was less politically astute. He irritated the people by the burdens he placed upon them. And when his son Sextus outraged Lucretia, the wife of a prominent Roman, Tarquinius was exiled, the lead being taken by a rich citizen named Brutus, whose father's property he had seized. The Romans established a republican constitution with power in the hands of two consuls chosen by the patricians, or wealthy classes.
agreement with Rome set the northern border of the Carthagian conquest to Ebro river (in northern Spain). But then the Romans themselves crossed the Ebro river, heading south on a conquest train, Hannibal decided to face them in 219. Then Hannibal did the totally unexpected: he set off in northern direction and brought with him large troops including elephants. He crossed the Alps as much as 300 km inland from the Mediterranean Sea. The crossing of the Alps was hazardous, and large parts of the troops, as well as the elephants, were lost. Hannibal had some success in recruiting locals to his troops, especially the Gauls. Even if Hannibal made alliances, and won several battles in the early years, he did not succeed in winning decisive battles. The Romans used a tactic of delaying, and they had strong hold on the communications over both land and sea. This would eventually result in declining morals in Hannibals troops. In 209 Hannibal's brother Hasdrubal Barca, repeated Hannibal's Alp adventure, bringing reinforcements, but he was beaten in 207 at Metaurus river (near today's Pesaro). The following year the Carthaginians were driven completely out of Spain. In 204 the Romans under the leadership of Scipio invaded Ifriqiya (today's Tunisia), and despite strong resistance, a peace was almost arranged in 203, when Hannibal returned. Hannibal was beaten in Zama (near today's Maktar, Tunisia) in 202. Peace was signed in 201. All claims on Spain were given up, and the Punic fleet was reduced to ten ships. The third war was entirely provoked by the Romans. Many Romans wanted to gain glory, and no enemy was more attractive than Carthage,
Rome used their ally, Masinissa, who ruled over Numidia to the west of Carthage, to bring forward a pretext for going to war. Masinissa deliberately provoked Carthage, and in 149 Carthage attacked him. Rome came to aid for their ally, through declaring war on Carthage. At first a peace was agreed upon, but then Rome increased their demands, decreeing a total abandonment of the city. Facing these claims, the Carthaginians returned to fighting, and soon Carthage fell under what would become a 3 year long siege. When the Romans finally breached the walls, one week of fighting inside the city followed, then the city was burned, and the locals were either executed or sold into slavery. From Republic to Empire While the conquest of the Mediterranean world may have brought immense wealth into Rome, it also increased tensions caused by the unequal distribution of that wealth. Wealthy patricians turned captured land into latifundia and dominated smaller landowners. The attempts of the Gracchi brothers to bring about land reform and use state subsidies to help the poor only led to their assassinations. More Tiberius Sempronius Gracchus and his younger brother, Gaius , spanned the period of roughly 137 to 121 BC The Gracchi brothers, Tiberius and Gaius, went down in history as two martyrs to the cause of social reform. Both were killed by members of the Senate for attempting to make the system more friendly to the lower classes of Rome. While seeking reelection, Gracchus was publicly assassinated on the steps of the Capitol by a mob of senators headed by patrician P. Scipio Nasica. His followers were murdered or
city. He was spared through the efforts of his supporters, but Sulla noted in his memoirs that he regretted sparing Caesar's life because of the young man's notorious ambition. Without any political obstacle, Sulla enacted a series of reforms to put control of the state firmly in the hands of a larger Senate His goal was to return the control of the city to aristocratic hands. Even Julius Caesar, 60 BCE: He returned from Spain and joined with Pompey and Crassus in a loose coalition called by modern historians “The First Triumvirate” and by his enemies at the time “the three- headed monster.” Pompey and Crassus were to be consuls again, and Caesar's command in Gaul was extended until 49 BCE. Meanwhile, Caesar's coalition with Pompey was increasingly strained, especially after Julia died in childbirth in 54. In the following year, Crassus received command of the armies of the East but was defeated and killed by the Parthians. Rioting in Rome led to Pompey's extra-legal election as “consul without a colleague.” Without Julia and Crassus, there was little to bond Caesar and Pompey together Caesar tried to maintain his position legally, but when he was pushed to the limit he led his armies across the Rubicon River (the border of his province), which was automatic civil war. Pompey's legions were in Spain, so he and the Senate retreated to Brundisium and from there sailed to the East. Caesar quickly advanced to Rome, set up a rump Senate and had himself declared dictator. Throughout his campaign, Caesar practiced—and widely publicized—his policy of clemency (he would put no one to death and confiscate no property). In a bold, unexpected move, Caesar led his legions to Spain, to prevent Pompey's forces from joining him in the East; he allegedly declared, “I
am off to meet an army without a leader; when I return, I shall meet a leader without an army.” After a remarkably short campaign, he returned to Rome and was elected consul, thus (relatively) legalizing his position. In the final battle, on the plains of Pharsalus, it is estimated that Pompey had 46,000 men to Caesar's 21,000. By brilliant generalship, Caesar was victorious, though the toll was great on both sides; Caesar pardoned all Roman citizens who were captured, including Brutus, but Pompey escaped, fleeing to Egypt. Caesar, with no more than 4,000 legionaries, landed in Alexandria; he was presented, to his professed horror, with the head of Pompey, who had been betrayed by the Egyptians. When Caesar landed, the eunuch Pothinus and the Egyptian general Achillas, acting on behalf of Ptolemy XIII (at this time about 12 years old), had recently driven Cleopatra (at this time about 20-21 years old) out of Alexandria. Cleopatra had herself smuggled into the palace in Alexandria wrapped in a rug (purportedly a gift for Caesar) and enlisted his help in her struggle to control the Egyptian throne. Like all the Ptolemies, Cleopatra was of Macedonian Greek descent; she was highly intelligent and well-educated. Caesar saw her as a useful ally as well as a captivating female, and he supported her right to the throne. Through the treachery of Pothinus and the hostility of the Egyptian people to the Romans, Achillas and an army of 20,000 besieged the palace. Caesar managed to hold the palace itself and the harbor; he had Pothinus executed as a traitor but allowed the young Ptolemy to join the army of Achillas. When he ordered the Egyptian fleet burnt, the great Library of Alexandria was accidently consumed in the flames. Either immediately before or soon after he left Egypt, Cleopatra bore a son, whom she named Caesarion, claiming that he was the son of Caesar. Julius’s victory in 46 B.C.E. created order but also essentially ended the republic. Holding the position of dictator, Caesar governed autocratically, more in the manner of a general than
stability to the empire as well as influenced centuries of legal thought. Tiberius Tiberius did well in appointing competent people to administrative positions, although preferences were given to candidates from "better" families. He kept Rome along a path of economic stability, and the military remained disciplined. Caligula He returned to the courts the power to make independent decisions in sentencing people, and he increased the number of jurors in order to speed proceedings. He began publishing a budget, and he began more building. But along with good intentions, Caligula suffered from vanity. The godliness that was attributed to his great-grandfather Augustus and Julius Caesar may have led him to believe not that he was a god but that he should be worshiped as a god. And in the year 41, at the age of 29, after having been in power only three years and ten months, he was assassinated by his own Praetorian Guard Claudius He stammered and suffered a disability that made him clumsy. Not taken seriously as a possible heir, he had survived while others around him had died in the intrigues that plagued the royal family. During his thirteen years of reign, he continued public works, he gave Rome a new aqueduct. Claudius died, some believe by Agrippina having poisoned him after he had expressed second thoughts about Nero as his successor. Nero Nero, almost seventeen, became emperor. In his first five years of rule, while under the influence of Seneca, he gave slaves the right to file complaints against their masters. He pardoned people who had written unflattering descriptions of him. He left the charge of treason unused. He gave assistance to cities that had suffered from disasters. And, he won the hearts of many of his subjects by lowering taxes. Nero's advisors disliked Agrippina and feared that she might have Nero assassinated. The Senate and the public also disliked Agrippina. It appears that Nero became convinced by those around him that she should be eliminated. Three times Nero
tried to poison Agrippina, but she had been raised in the Imperial family and was accustomed to taking antidotes. Nero had a machine built and attached to the roof of her bedroom. The machine was designed to make the ceiling collapse — the plot failed with the machine. Then he contrived a plan to drown her by means of a collapsible boat. Agrippina escaped death by swimming gamely until she reached help, but she now knew clearly that her life was in danger. Nero took more direct action and dispatched assassins to accomplish the murder. Losing power he quickly fell into disgrace much like Caligula’s reign. Sensing Nero's lack of power, the Senate roused itself and declared Nero a public enemy and ordered his execution. Economy and Society in the Roman Mediterranean Like other empires, the Roman empire built roads that facilitated trade and cultural transmission. Roman control over the Mediterranean was so complete that they simply referred to it as mare nostrum , or “our sea.” The roads and sea lanes, along with the stability of the pax romana , inspired economic specialization and integration. Trade promoted the rise of cities, but no city grew as large or powerful or splendid as Rome itself. Romans enjoyed fresh water from aqueducts, a sophisticated sewage and plumbing network, and spectacular public events in the Circus Maximus and Colosseum. In regard to family structure, the Romans were strongly patriarchal Pater Familias but women did have many rights both inside and outside the home. Woman belongs to pf – hand in marriage Slaves constituted up to one-third of the empire’s population.
