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Congress of Vienna (1814-1815)- The czar of Russia led everyone into France, they captured Napoleon and had a peace conference. Bonaparte was exiled to an island in the Mediterranean Sea and they restored the French Monarchy with Louis 18th^ as the new King. This Peace Treaty lasted for about 99 years in Europe. Their main objective was to bring back the balance of powers and create order in Europe. Metternich (Austria) Alexander I (Russia)- He came to the Congress himself rather than sending a representative. Castlereagh (Great Britain)- Tallevrand (France)- he had been in the French government starting with Louis the 16th Waterloo (1815)- Napoleon escaped from the island and got back to France, but this time they put him on an island in the Atlantic instead where he stayed until death. Balance of Powers- This is what the Congress of Vienna was working towards. They thought that there should always be more than two great powers so that if one country trys to take over, they can keep them under control. In this system the winner does not take all, but everyone compromises. Liberty and Order- The Congress reorganized Europe after Napoleon was exiled. They kept the German confederation, the school system, and the Napoleonic Code. Legitimacy- In Spain and the Kingdom of the two Sicilys, they changed out rulers for the legitimate next monarch rather than who Napoleon decided he liked. Restoration of Bourbon Monarch- In France they brought back the Monarch who was Louis the 18th, nephew of Louis the 16th. But even with the monarch they kept the constitution and National Assembly. German Confederation- Originally there were over 300 states, which made it very confusing, and Napoleon made it into 32 states. They kept it this way because it made more sense. Industrial Revolution England(1760-1780)- Over this period of time many changes took place. England became very rich because of many advantages they had. This includes: investing in other countries, having a large cheap labor supply, a secure middle class, great connections, convenient geography and trade with their own colonies. Primogeniture- this was the inheritance system in England at the time. The oldest son in the household gets the land and the title. This differs from France who divides up their land. England only passes it all down to one. The younger sons become businessmen so England doesn’t really look down on their middle class at all because they are related to the upper class. Deforestation- Very early on England started running out of trees. They wanted pine trees because this is what you made ship masts out of, and what they used for fuel. When they recognized that the lack of trees was an issue they began looking for other sources of fuel. They found coal and began mining. James Watt- He was a Scottish Man that invented the steam engine in 1763. People of the time were trying to create a pump to get water out of the coalmines. He built off of these ideas and when it was finally invented it was used greatly. James Hargreaves- Englishman that invented the Spinning Jenny in 1765.Originally wool and linen were worn because cotton took a very long time to make. The spinning Jenny (named after his daughter) allowed a worker to spin 7 spools of thread rather than 1 spool. Putting- Out system- This is where a factor would go and hire farmwives to spin yarn and then they would take the thread to a weaving man to finish it. Factor- someone organizing the production of a product, they were originally over the putting-out system and then over factories.
Factory- the newly invented machines couldn’t fit in a home so factory buildings were built. This truly changed the lives of workers because it took them away from home and their families. Cotton Cloth- it was originally very difficult to make cotton cloth. It was considered a luxury. It was the perfect first item of the Industrial Revolution because it was wanted everywhere. It was very comfortable and was not expensive to make. English textile Industry- this married together the steam engine and the spinning jenny. If you worked for this industry you could not leave the country and England very carefully protected the spinning technology from exportation. There were 102,000 females and 88,000 males. “seperation of work and life”- This was caused by factories, People left their homes and were pulled out of the countryside into the cities. Rights of Man- Thomas Paine wrote this in 1790, he was admiring France’s way of life. He talked about factory life and how it is changing life dramatically. Luddites- 1790 -Theses were textile factory workers (men) that felt the machine was their enemy. They sabotaged the machines. Peterloo- 1819- The English Army shot into a crowd of angry workers complaining about low wages. 10 were killed and thousands were wounded. “Combination Acts”- 1799-Parliament made it illegal for workers to “combine” or meet up to complain. Classical Liberalism and the New Middle Class “Dual Revolution”: French and Industrial- these two revolutions happened in two different places at similar times, changing the world permanently. Middle Class- these were the most important people of the time, they thought they deserved rights, they were hard working. They loved the ideas to Adam Smith Classical Liberalism, 19th^ Century Liberalism- This is the belief that individuals have rights. The government should just protect your rights and nothing more. This philosophy is similar to the enlightenment ideas. Civil liberties- theses are basically civil rights. A set of political and judicial rights that individuals are believed to have. Such as freedom of speech, religion, press, assembly. Economic liberties- similar to civil liberties except relating to the economy. Such as freedom to control prices, trade, and property. Adam Smith (1727-1780)- A Scottish writer who wrote “The Wealth of Nations” in 1776. He said that the best thing to do for the economy is to leave people alone to make their own choices. “Laissez-faire”- this is a belief stating that liberty is good. People should be left alone by the government. Self interest will take over and is more efficient.. Economic liberty is more productive. John Stuart Mill (1806-1873) – Englishmen who wrote about mostly economics. He wrote “ ON Liberty” in 1859. He says that liberty is good for a society and everyone should be themselves. It is dangerous if everyone thinks alike. Conservatism- this is the belief that tradition is good. Everyone should stick with the original ideas such as monarchs, nobles, and the old regime as a whole.
National/ unity/ national independence/ popular sovereignty Rights for workers: socialism-this is what truly motivated people France in 1848- trying not to have a King, new constitution, elected president 2 nd^ Republic- elected Louis Napoleon Bonaparte Ireland in 1840s- Famine, 1 million died of starvation because they only grew potatoes. The people living in the cities were hurt the most. First Recession- no one knew that it would ever end cause it had never happened before. Socialism Robert Owen- (1772-1858) Successful industrialist, owned a textile factory, observed his factory and found that it was great for him, but terrible for the workers. He thought this wasn’t fair so he turned his factory into somewhat of a charity. He also invented what would be called Owenite. Henri Saint- Simon- (1760- 1825) he believed we should use the golden rule and that you should treat the workers like you would want to be treated. Charles Fourier- (1772-1837) wrote 14 volumes. The problem was factories. People should be on the land, not in factories. He said that there is someone for every job. Karl Marx- (1818-1895)- Thought that all of the former mentioned were ridiculous. Utopian socialist. He was a “scientific socialist”. German philosophy major. He wrote the Communist Manifesto. He had to leave the country because of the reaction to his book. Then he wrote for newspapers. Friedrich Engels- (1820- 1895)- German, worked with Marx , His father owned textile factories and sent him to manage factories Communist Manifesto- (1848) written by Karl Marx. The first statement of socialist values. He was later hired by workers association. Das Kapital (Capital)- 1860s Marxism- most systematic but not the first. Marx wanted to be the Isaac Newton of society. A theory of History- principles that are everywhere, laws that exist. Progress thoughout history. Stages: Marx decided these stages cover his idea of theory of history Primitive communism- feudalism- capitalism- socialism/communism The “motor” that causes change= class struggle + revolution Bourgesoisie vs. proletariat (factory workers) A critique of capitalism- Karl Marx made up the word capitalism. He said that owning land, money, and investments was most important. Labor Theory of Value- He said it is not proper or just for one person to own the means of production. Things that come from the earth should belong to everyone. It is dehumanizing to work in a factory doing division of labor Darwin and Social Darwinism Charles Darwin (1809-1882)- biologist, natural philosopher. He studied geology and found that the world seemed to be much older than we originally thought. He said that nature was a constant struggle to survive. And that there was evolution through natural selection. On the origin of species by means of natural selection (1859)- Stated that the world was much older, animals have evolved. This book was very controversial and very popular. These were powerful new ideas that came out in England.
Galapagos- This is the island where Darwin studied the relationships between plants and animals. He noticed variations and asked himself whether they change overtime. The Beagle- The ship that Darwin was on to go to the Galapagos Islands Evolution- The idea that species evolved based on a struggle to survive. Although this does not necessarily mean that the species improve. Herbert Spencer( 1820- 1903)- Social Darwinist. He applied Darwin’s ideas to society saying that it was also making progress through struggle. All men are not created equal, some have better qualities. Friedrich Nietzche (1844-1900)- German philosopher, wrote many books, social Darwinist. He said there was natural inequality among humans and maybe nations are unequal too. Social Darwinists were saying: maybe we should not be trying to prevent wars? Imperialism Why was it happening? National Prestige- glory, status, projecting an image, looking powerful Strategic Concerns- gained men to fight, fueling stops, bases, and other military advantages Religion- religious people were looking for converts, tons of missionaries ( mostly protestant) were headed to Africa, They were funded by the middle class Economic Motives- business men more than government pushing for Imperialism Markets- more people to sell to Materials- Rubber, food products, wood, dyes, diamonds, gold, coal Investment opportunities- Joint Stock companies were growing and now they were spreading to African Colonies Coming of the First World War
- Problem of Germany: were does it fit in? - Germany did not start WWI, they had just been united, Educated, industrialized. People did not know who were their friends and who were their enemies. Kaiser Wilhelm I- King of Prussia, added surrounding land to Prussia. He was very clever Chancellor Bismarck- He led the Franco-Russian War. He was the Prime Minister of Prussia, very conservative, believed in monarchy. He helped create Germany. Three Emperors’ League 1881-1887- Bismarck, Germany, Austria-Hungary, and Russia created this. They realized that being centrally located in Europe was dangerous and needed to look out for each other. Triple Alliance: Germany, Austria, Italy Russo-German Reinsurance Treaty, 1887-1890- This was the German leader trying to continue being allies with the Russians despite disagreements. Kaiser Wilhelm II- This was the new King of Prussia, He was not the son of the first. He was cocky and got irritated with Bismarck, and decided they were not renewing their alliance. Naval building program- Everyone wanted a strong army. This worries the British because Germany did not even need a Navy. Franco-Russian Entente, 1894- They made a deal to deter German aggression and they let Germany know about this deal. Anglo-French Entente, 1904- English and French agreement against Germany Anglo-Russian Entente, 1907- Russian and Englands agreement against Germany These 3 = “Triple Entente”- These agreements together make this. Russia, France, and Britian
Aug. 4 Britain vs Germany Aug. 6 Austria-Hungary vs Russia Soldiers and Citizens The Schlieffen Plan- this was the Germans plan to fight the French and Russians in sequence. To take Paris in 2 weeks then go get Russians. But the Germans Did not follow this The Battle of the Marne (Paris) 1914 – Germans trying to take Paris, they failed The Battle of Tannenberg, 1914- This was the battle between the Germans and Russians. The Russians were allies with France and successfully divided the German Army Machine guns- new at the time, killed huge amounts of people because they were more accurate and easier to load. The power of the defense – Being on defense gave you the power because in Trench warfare if the other side was attacking they couldn’t fire. When they created machine guns they only thought about shooting, not getting shot. There were 10 times more death on the attacking side. Trench warfare- very slow, killed many, illness spread quickly because of wet, dirty conditions, there was a very small chance of living if you tried to advance. Artillery- these were canons behind the lines. They tried to shoot into the other sides trenches but it didn’t work very well. They learned that when the artillery stopped the advance was coming. e.g.: Battle of the Somme, 1916: July 1st- the British attacked the Germans in Belgium. This was the bloodiest day of British history Artillery bombardment lasted 1 month: 21,000 tons of shells (1.5 million shells)- July 1, 1916, first day: British attacked: lost 60,000 killed & wounded Germans defended: lost 6, 5 months; each side lost 625,000 men; British “won” 7 miles along a 30-mile front Home “front”- all of society was involved in the war. The nurses, mothers caring for children, and factory workers supporting the war. Factory work for women- all men were off at war and there was a need for bullets so women took over Some men exempted from draft- skilled men that are needed for making metal were exempted sometimes. Gov’t intervenes in Labor-management relations Inflation Shortages/rationing- encouraged to save bread! Nationalization of major industries (socialism??) Tax increases- there was a need to pay for what is only destroying and not building New gov’t agencies/bureaucracies National debts increases Size of gov’t increases- more rules and regulations The Russian Revolutions of 1917 Emancipation of the serfs, 1861- this effected 90% of population. They started flooding the cities. Nobles and the Tsar didn’t like this. Industrialization/urbanization, 1890s- full blown industrialization, People moved to cities and learned more because they are now free
Revolutionary movement- Social Revolutionaries (SRs): peasant-oriented- serfs wanted the redistribution of land. Even out the ownership of the land. Social Democrats (SDs): Marxists, worker-oriented- this spread quickly throughout the cities. Vladimir Lenin (1870-1924)- he led the SDs and helped create it. These parties were illegal so he kept it undercover 1903 split -this occurred because of Lenin. He wanted the party to be selective. Both were Marxists though Mensheviks- others who except everyone Bolsheviks- they were with Lenin, wanted a selective party. Russo-Japanese War, 1904-1905- Russia lost and it was very embarrassing. The Russian people felt even more that their government wasn’t capable. Revolution of 1905- this revolution did not dethrone Monarch, but there was a lot of commotion Tsar Nicholas II grants a constitution and Duma- he granted a legislature and parliament. He held elections for the Duma Kadet Party: Classical liberals/middle class- this was the first legal party Russia in World War I: fails the political test of the war- it was very important that people supported the war, and no one did anymore. St. Petersburg becomes Petrograd – It was changed because it sounded too German, whom they were fighting Grigorii Rasputin- “mad monk”. He was a supposed holy man that was attached to the Tsar and family. He seemed to call the shots for the Tsar and this angered people. The Nobles killed him eventually. International Women’s Day, March 8, 1917- this is a holiday in most of Europe, you give flowers to the women in your life. But this specific day women were not very happy and they took to the streets to start a revolution. This encouraged men to do the same. When the troops were ordered to do something about it they refused. Nicholas II abdicates, March 15: FIRST REVOLUTION OF 1917- His generals told him he should quit, so he did. This was the end of the monarchy. Period of Dual Power- For the next 6 months this existed. It was set up for just continuing the war. Made up of the Duma and the Soviets Provisional Government: Kadets & Alexander Kerensky- government for the mean time Soviets: workers’ councils: SRs, Mensheviks, Bolsheviks- formed in factories, streets. It started spontaneously, they elected their own representatives Nov. 7, 1917: Bolshevik seizure of power in Petrograd: SECOND REVOLUTION OF 1917- the public had more faith in the Bolsheviks, Lenin pushed his team, and arrested the provisional government “Land, Peace and Bread” “All Power to the Soviets”- motto of the Bolsheviks party Treaty of Brest-Litovsk, March 1918- signed peace treaty, this was a disaster for England and France Paris Peace Conference and the End of WWI 1917: Russia leaves the war- Lenin surrenders because he thought they would lose. Brest-Litovsk Treaty in March 1918 says Russia is done with war. The Army of Russia never cracked; the population just wasn’t willing anymore. US enters the war- They had been neutral the whole time so far. Decided finally to get involved saying that trade was being disrupted. It took a while for the Americans to arrive. President Woodrow Wilson- He had run on a platform saying they would stay out of the war. He requested a declaration of war in his 2nd^ term. Said he was protecting shipping in Atlantic. Nov. 11, 1918-Armistice- The Allies won. The Germans cracked, but they still thought they did a great job and weren’t very upset with how they fought. Cease-fire on the 11th^ hour, on the 11th^ day, of the 11th^ month.
New Economic Policy, 1921-1928- Lenin announced this gradual approach to building communism. The people had a need to become a modern mixed economy. There was a complicated system where you elect who elects who elects. There is only one party. V.I. Lenin (1870-1924)- leader of communist party. Started slow process towards Communism, but died of multiple strokes. It was unexpected and left people lost. Succession struggle: Josef V. Djugashvili (Stalin) (1879-1953)- gave himself the name, “man of steel”. He had been a follower of Lenin. He was from Georgia but adopted Russian nationality. He won in 1928 and ended the New Economic Policy. Leon Trotsky (1879-1940)- Marxist. He was a revolutionary, but he lost and Stalin had him killed by his agents. How to industrialize late and fast? - Wanted to catch up with the rest of the world. First Five-Year Plan, 1928-1933- plans to quickly modernize the Soviet Union Collectivization of Agriculture (1929-32)- government tried to take all the animals. People killed them because they didn’t want the government to have the animals. Famine in Ukraine, 1933 - no more animals to pull the plow. Purges, 1936-1939- getting rid of foreigners, or those who may be spies/ traitors to communism. No one can make sense of this. Rise of Fascism Post-war disillusionment – no one back at home really knew how war was. They had never been to war. Apparent success of socialism and communism- it seemed to have won, or be successful, although it didn’t really spread at all. Social Democratic Party of Germany (SPD)- this was the biggest socialist Party in Europe. Weimar Republic (Germany 1919-1933) Communist International, 1919- this was a organization that met in Moscow. They made a lot of noise and worried people. They planned a world revolution, but nothing really happened. Strikes- strikes by workers because they wanted more money. There was a backwards strike where they locked the managers out and kept producing. Liberals discredited- These parties pretty much died because they were blamed for the war. They also could not solve the after- war problems, so they were considered people who couldn’t get anything done. These were surprisingly the middle class parties. A new politics- Fasces- Italian word for a bundle. Stronger tied together. Fascism- Benito Mussolini created this. It was a political party. They wrote no books though so it was unclear what their ideas were. They meant to attract everyone Anti-communist- They didn’t want communism in Italy. People do not belong to a certain class Anti-democratic- they considered democracy wimpy and weak because its based on division. Democracy can’t win wars. They didn’t like that people voted Leader party- Popular, charismatic leader, unified the people the idea man Nationalistic- unified, unity of the nation, this makes your identity Aversion to modern life- this got the votes, let’s be more polite and make men, men, and women, women. Cult of masculinity and militarism- virtues are manly, virtues of soldier, a true man is a soldier, a true woman is a mother of a soldier. Benito Mussolini, Italy 1922- Italian leader that created fascism.
The Great Depression Economic Consequences of WWI Structural oversupply- too many manufactured goods and food compared to what people can buy. The increased production from the war continued. Inflation (that led to deflation)- war brings inflation, the government always spends money they don’t have Excessive Deflation (return to gold standards)-same demand but more supply so the prices fall. There is more paper money than there is gold to back it up. Loss of Leader- England is the usual leader but they couldn’t do it this time. What does a “leader” do? -Lender of last resort -Accepter of distress goods (free trade) -Maintain low interest rates Wartime and post-war inflation in Germany- had to send reparations to many other countries including France and England. 1914 $1.00 = 4.2 marks 1/1923 $1.00 = 1800 marks Complete breakdown of monetary system 9/1923 $1.00 = 4.2 trillion marks There was a government sponsored strike, but eventually just gave up and paid. Worldwide recession by 1928- the year before the stock market crashed. Everything is just stopping and there is a huge retraction in employment. Crash of NY Stock Market, October 1929 -1929-32: world industrial production declines by 1/ -30 million people lose jobs worldwide -15 million in US
- World prices drop 30% What to do in a mess like this? - Deal with it quickly, Give people money. Bruening/Hitler- Germany has the exact same monetary problem. Bruening was a good guy, kept trying to keep the budget balanced like Hoover. Hoover/Roosevelt- US presidents that dealt with depression. Hoover was president when the stock market crashed, said that we just needed to keep the budget balanced at all times. Roosevelt somewhat fixed it. John M. Keynes- Englishman, economic genius of the day. General Theory of Employment, Interest and Money, 1935- became Bible of economics. Helps you to understand the demand side of economy. Included charts, graphs, and number. Very complex. The Rise of the Nazis Adolf Hitler (1889-1945) –born in Austria, not German. Lower middle class, his father was a drunk and beat him, his mother was devoted to him. He wanted to be an architect, but couldn’t find work. Tried to enlist in Austrian army but was rejected. Joined German Army, won bravery medals, and was injured in gas attack. He didn’t seem like a leader. Bavaria (Munich)- met up with many others like him. Felt like National Socialist German Workers’ Party (NSDAP):Nazis – Hitler didn’t found it, but quickly became leader. Beer Hall Putsch, 1923- randomly wanted to take over the town hall. Didn’t do anything, they were arrested. Mein Kampf 1924- wrote while in jail for above. “fürher”
