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Notes on Digestive System in Human Anatomy | KINE 303, Study notes of Physiology

William & Mary Physiology

Prof. Raymond Mccoy

Final Study Guide Material Type: Notes; Professor: McCoy; Class: Human Anatomy; Subject: Kinesiology & Hlth Sciences; University: William and Mary; Term: Spring 2012;

Typology: Study notes

2011/2012

Uploaded on 08/28/2012

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THE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM

THE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM STRUCTURES:

- Digestive Tract: mouth, pharynx, esophagus, stomach, small intestine,

large intestine, absorption

- Accessory Organs: teeth, tongue, salivary glands, liver, gallbladder,

pancreas

THE 8 FUNCTIONS OF THE DIGESTIVE TRACT:

1. ingestion-- food/liquid enter digestive tract

2. mechanical processing-- chewing, churning, mixing

3. digestion-- chemical, enzymatic breakdown of food

4. secretion-- by glandular accessory organs

5. absorption-- organic molecules, electrolytes, vitamins

- into capillaries and lymphatics

6. compaction-- dehydration of ingestible materials, waste

7. excretion-- waste products secreted into digestive tract

8. defecation-- elimination of fecal material from body

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THE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM

THE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM STRUCTURES:

Digestive Tract: mouth, pharynx, esophagus, stomach, small intestine, large intestine, absorption
Accessory Organs: teeth, tongue, salivary glands, liver, gallbladder, pancreas THE 8 FUNCTIONS OF THE DIGESTIVE TRACT:

ingestion-- food/liquid enter digestive tract
mechanical processing-- chewing, churning, mixing
digestion-- chemical, enzymatic breakdown of food
secretion-- by glandular accessory organs
absorption-- organic molecules, electrolytes, vitamins

into capillaries and lymphatics

compaction-- dehydration of ingestible materials, waste
excretion-- waste products secreted into digestive tract
defecation-- elimination of fecal material from body

THE HISTOLOGY OF THE DIGESTIVE TRACT

Mucosa: inner most layer
- Mucosal Epithelium, Lamina Propria (basement membrane, connective tissue), Muscularis Mucosa (moves the villa (small bumps))
- Plica: folds in the mucosa that function to increase surface area for absorption
Submucosa:^ areolar tissue surrounding the muscularis mucosa
- Contents: blood vessels, lymphatics, exocrine glands (sweat, mammillary, anything in DT is considered outside of the body), submucosal plexus
Muscularis Externa:^ circumferentially oriented^ smooth muscle fibers (inner layer) and longitudinally oriented smooth muscle fibers (outer layer) THE MOVEMENT OF DIGESTIVE TRACT
- Muscularis layers =^ visceral smooth muscle tissue
- Muscle cells are arranged in sheets or layers, and are electrically connected to adjacent muscles by gap junctions.
- Contractions spread in a wave through the tissue in response to motor neuron activation, chemicals, hormones, stretching, and pacesetter cells.
- Pacesetter cells trigger muscle contraction patterns (peristalsis and segmentation) that facilitate the propulsion and mixing of contents along the digestive tract. - Peristalsis: process whereby wavelike contractions of the muscularis externa propel a bolus along the DT; requires the coordinated actions of the circular and longitudinal muscles - small intestines are growling, not the stomach - growling noises are louder when the DT is empty - Segmentation: process whereby contractions of the circular layer of the muscularis externa churn and mix the contents of the digestive tract - does NOT produce net movement in a particular direction THE ORGANIZATION OF THE PERITONEAL CAVITY

Digestive Functions: analysis of ingested material, mechanical processing/ bolus formation, lubrication, digestion of carbohydrates
Accessory Organ: tongue, teeth, salivary glands
- Salivary Glands: Parotid salivary glands, Submandibular salivary glands, and the Sublingual salivary glands
Pharynx: a muscular structure with an epithelial lining that functions in both respiration and digestion - Pharyngeal muscles cooperate with the oral cavity and esophagus to initiate the swallowing process - Three Phases of Swallowing: - - 1. Buccal Phase: compression of bolus against hard palate; elevation of soft palate; retraction of tongue - 2. Pharyngeal Phase: bolus contacts posterior pharyngeal wall; elevation of larynx; folding of epiglottis backwards - 3. Esophageal Phase: opening of upper esophageal sphincter; peristalsis; opening of lower esophageal sphincter Esophagus: hollow (flat) muscular tube that transports foods and liquids to the stomach; is a closed tube unless something is in it Stomach: Landmarks: lesser curvature, greater curvature Regions: cardia, fundus (makes mucus), body, pylorus (and sphincter) Mesenteries: greater and lesser omenta; double later or peritoneum Intraperitoneal organs are covered by visceral peritoneum and suspended by mesentery from the body wall. stomach liver jejunum ileum transverse colon sigmoid colon appendix The mesentery of retroperitoneal organs has fused with the posterior wall. The organs lie posterior to (retro) the peritoneal cavity. duodenum pancreas (main) ascending colon descending colon kidneys (main- back right side) adrenal glands

Functions:

bulk storage of ingested food;
mechanical breakdown of ingested food;
chemical digestion of ingested food via the disruption of chemical bonds by acids and enzymes
begins absorbing water, aspirin, and alcohol The mixing of ingested substances with the gastric juices (secreted by gastric glands) produces chyme. The Stomach Walls: Rugae: longitudinal folds in the mucosa of the stomach wall that permit the expansion of the gastric lumen

The extra inner oblique layer of smooth muscle in the muscularis externa of the stomach. The ridges add surface area to the inside of the stomach. The Gastric Gland Secretions Mucous Cells: mucous Parietal Cells: HCl and gastric intrinsic factor Chief Cells: pepsincogen Enteroendocrine Cells (G cells): gastrin - hormones released into blood stream

Enteroendocrine Cells: secrete many hormones
- Cholecystokinin (CCK): to gallbladder, pancreas, and liver
- Secretin: to pancreas THE LARGE INTESTINE: bulky storage area Divisions:
Cecum: little pouch below one-way valve with appendix sticking out
vermiform appendix
Colon
ascending, transverse, descending, and sigmoid (common place for problems)
Rectum
anal canal, anus Functions of the Large Intestine:

The reabsorption of water and electrolytes
Compaction of intestinal contents into feces
The absorption of vitamins
Storage of fecal material before defecation Specializations of the Large Intestine:

Taenia Coli: 3 bands of longitudinal muscle
Epiploic Appendages: flat pouch that hangs from the colon
Haustra: sacules between bands of circular muscles that are accentuates by taenia coli muscle contractions Movement of Material Through the Large Intestine:
Slow passage of materials via peristaltic activity and haustral churning
Periodic mass movements of fecal matter via powerful peristaltic contractions
Distension of rectal wall to stimulate conscious urge to poop THE RECTUM & ANUS:
Internal Anal Sphincter: involuntary smooth muscle that relaxes in response to rectal wall distension (defecation reflex)
External Anal Sphincter: voluntary skeletal muscle whose relaxation allows for defecation
Crohn’s Disease = Inflammatory Bowel Disease
Abdominal pain and variations in bowel activity (diarrhea or constipation)
Accompanied with ANS dysfunction

Colectomy: removal of a portion of the colon
Diverticulitis: inflammation of an abnormal pouch (diverticulum) in the intestinal wall; usually found in the large intestine (colon)
Colon Cancer: colorectal polyps are growths that stick out of the lining of the colon or rectum; usually benign but can lead to bleeding polyps or cancer THE LIVER: the largest visceral organ that performs functions related to...
Metabolic Regulation: extraction and storage of nutrients from the blood; detoxification of harmful materials; storage of fat soluble vitamins
Hematological Regulation: blood reservoir and filter; removal of damaged blood cells/debris; synthesis of plasma proteins
bile production Anatomy of the Liver:
right lobe
left lobe
quadrate lobe: beside the gallbladder
caudate lobe: behind the gallbladder
Falciform ligament: separates the right and left lobes
Hepatocytes (liver cells)

Aorta artery ---> capillary bed in small and large intestines ---> Hepatic portal vein ---> capillary bed in liver ---> inferior vena cava vein ---> heart
Most of the blood from the digestive tract is drained by the hepatic portal system. blood flowing in veins from the digestive organs drains into hepatic portal vein.
The hepatic portal vein drains blood into the liver, where it is filtered by specialized capillary beds (sinusoids). The modified/filtered blood then flows through the hepatic vein and into the inferior vena cava to the heart. Cirrhosis of the Liver: destruction of hepatocytes, usually due to alcohol; leads to extensive scar tissue and deformity of the liver. THE PANCREAS: Divisions: head (touches duodenum), neck, body, & tail Structures: main pancreatic duct, accessory pancreatic duct Functions:
Exocrine Function: secretion of pancreatic juice (digestive enzymes, water, and ions) to aid in digestion by Acinar cells.
Endocrine Function: secretion of hormones to regulate blood sugar levels by pancreatic islets (islets of langerhans)
Hormones: insulin from Beta cells & glucagon from Alpha cells Blood Supply:
Celiac Trunk: stomach, liver, gallbladder, pancreas, spleen, and a part of the duodenum
Superior Mesenteric Artery: most of the duodenum, jejunum, ileum, cecum, appendix, ascending colon, and first 1/2 of transverse colon
Inferior Mesenteric Artery: comes right off aorta and goes to the left side, second 1/2 of transverse colon, descending colon, sigmoid colon, & a part of the rectum DIABETES:
Type 1: destruction of Beta cells, so no insulin is produced (5-10% of people)
Type 2: insulin is produced, but it is not getting into tissues from blood stream (the intermediate all membrane transporters are not working)

THE URINARY SYSTEM:

Functions:

Regulating plasma concentrations of Na, Cl, K, Ca
Regulating blood volume and blood pressure by adjusting volume of water lost, releasing erythropoietin, and releasing renin
Contributing to stabilization of blood pH
Conserving valuable nutrients by preventing their excretion in urine
Eliminating organic waste products especially nitrogenous waste such as urea and uric acid.
Synthesizing calcitriol, a hormone derivative of vitamin D that stimulates calcium ion absorption by intestinal epithelium
Assisting liver in detoxifying poisons and deaminating amino acids so that other tissues can break them down
The Bladder is a muscle with transitional epithelium on it.
The Ureter squeezes the urine out. The Kidneys:
located behind the diaphragm and the 12th rib

Renal Corpuscle:^ filtration occurs as blood pressure forces fluid and dissolved ions out of the glomerulus and into the capsular space - Filtration must pass 3 barriers: - Capillary Endothelium - Basement Membrane - Glomerular Epithelium
Proximal Convoluted Tubule:
- First part of the renal tubule
- Actively absorbs organic nutrients, ions, & plasma proteins
- Osmotic forces then pull water out of the filtrate and into the surrounding interstitial fluid (peritubular fluid)
Loop of Henle (LOH):
- 2 parts: ascending/descending limbs
  - each of these are divided into thin and thick segments
- Thick segments use active transport to move ions (Na, Cl) out tubular fluid
- Thin segments are permeable to water but not ions and the high concentration of the peritubular fluid (due to the thick limb’s active transport) causes osmotic pressure to force water out of the tubular fluid
Distal Convoluted Tubule:
- Active secretion of ions, acids, and other materials
- Selective reabsorption of Na and Ca ions from tubular fluid (controlled by aldosterone secreted by the adrenal cortex)
- Selective reabsorption of water
Collecting System:
- Consists of connecting tubules, collecting ducts, papillary ducts (which drain into the minor calyx, etc.) - What our body needs pulled back into the capillary duct
- Collecting system makes the adjustments of the tubular fluid
  - Regulatory mechanism involves changing the permeability of the collecting ducts to water
  - ADH (anti-diuretic hormone) responsible for permeability of the collecting system (high ADH leads to more water reabsorbed which leads to more concentrated urine)

In the Male Urinary System...

The Urethra is longer and it runs through the Prostate
Membranous gland penile gland release urine
Incorpus Spongiosum vs. Corpus Cavernosum

control and regulate most tissues and systems of the body PNS vs. CNS: Peripheral Nervous System:
- Includes all nervous tissue outside of the CNS
- Afferent divisions -- sensory information
- Efferent divisions -- carries commands to muscles and glands
- Somatic (muscle)
- Visceral (ANS) (Organs) Central Nervous System:
- Consists of brain and spinal cord
- Responsible for integrating, processing, and coordinating sensory data and motor commands

Efferent Systems: Somatic vs. Autonomic Nervous Systems Somatic:

Controls skeletal muscle contractions
May be voluntary or involuntary
- Reflexes are involuntary somatic actions
- Patellar reflex and hand on hot stove reflex Autonomic:
“Visceral Motor System”
Controls smooth muscle, cardiac muscle, glandular activity
2 divisions:
Sympathetic: speeds everything up (Fight-or-Flight)
Parasympathetic: for slowing things down & breathing
80% cells
20% extracellular matrix
Five types of cells in CNS
Three types of cells in PNS The Neuron:
Input:
Cell body = soma
Dendrites and soma = receptor sites
Output:
Axon Hillock = summing area
Axons = transmission
Axon collaterals
Axon terminal = terminal boutons = synaptic knobs

Schwann Cells: good for insulating and increasing speed of impulse down an axon... oligodendrocytes
Myelination: has Schwann Cells on it CNS Neuroglia (Spinal Cord):
Oligodendrocytes: myelinate CNS axons; provide structural framework
Astrocytes: maintain a blood-to-brain barrier in white and gray matter; provide structural support; regulate ion, nutrient, and dissolved gas concentrations; absorb and recycle neurotransmitters; form scar tissue after injury
Microglia: fight infection, remove cell debris, wastes, and pathogens by phagocytosis
Ependymal: epithelial cells line ventricles in the brain and central canal (spinal cavity); assist in producing, circulating, and monitoring cerebrospinal fluid THE ANATOMY OF THE CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM: Cranial Meninges:
Dura Mater (tough):
Falx cerebri (scythe-shaped):
Fold of dura mater that projects between the two hemispheres of the cerebrum
Contains superior/inferior sagittal sinuses that carry venous drainage away from the brain
Falx cerebelli:
Fold of dura that separates hemispheres of the cerebellum
Tentorium cerebelli (“tent of the cerebellum”):
Fold of dura that separates cerebrum from cerebellum
Contains the transverse sinus
Arachnoid Mater (cobweb-like)
Pia Mater (tender) ← ← ← ←

← The Ventricles:

2 lateral ventricles in the telencephalon; the right and left ventricles come together as the 3rd ventricle
3rd ventricle in the diencephalon: right between the thalamus and hypothalamus
4th ventricle is between the brainstem and cerebellum
***all contain choroid plexus (convoluted tubule) epithelial cells and produce CSF
CSF Flow: Lateral Ventricles ---> Interventricular Foramen ---> 3rd ventricle ---> cerebral aqueduct ---> 4th ventricle
Epidural Hematoma: cranial bone bleeding inwards between bone and dura matter, putting pressure on the brain Function:
Each hemisphere receives sensory input and generates motor commands for the opposite side of the body (contralateral)
2 hemispheres appear identical, but have different functions
The assignment of a function to a given region is imprecise. The Five Lobes:

Frontal - motor cortex
Parietal - somatosensory cortex
Occipital - visual cortex
Temporal - auditory cortex (emotions & memory facilitation)
Insular - emotional/olfactory cortex

Notes on Digestive System in Human Anatomy | KINE 303, Study notes of Physiology

Related documents

Partial preview of the text

Download Notes on Digestive System in Human Anatomy | KINE 303 and more Study notes Physiology in PDF only on Docsity!

THE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM

THE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM STRUCTURES:

THE HISTOLOGY OF THE DIGESTIVE TRACT

THE URINARY SYSTEM: