Download Understanding Networking Devices: Hubs, Switches, Bridges, Routers, and More and more Schemes and Mind Maps Topology in PDF only on Docsity!
Networking Devices
Objectives
1.6 Identify the purposes, features, and functions of the following network components: ✓ Hubs ✓ Switches ✓ Bridges ✓ Routers ✓ Gateways ✓ CSU/DSU (Channel Service Unit/Data Service Unit) ✓ NICs (Network Interface Card) ✓ ISDN (Integrated Services Digital Network) adapters ✓ WAPs (Wireless Access Point) ✓ Modems ✓ Transceivers (media converters) ✓ Firewalls 2.1 Identify a MAC (Media Access Control) address and its parts
What you need to know
✓ Describe how hubs and switches work ✓ Explain how hubs and switches can be connected to create larger networks ✓ Describe how bridges, routers, and gateways work ✓ Describe how routing protocols are used for dynamic routing ✓ Explain the purpose of other networking components such as Channel Service Unit/Digital Service Unit (CSU/DSU) and gateways ✓ Describe the purpose and function of network cards ✓ Describe how to identify a MAC address ✓ Understand the function of a transceiver ✓ Describe the purpose of a firewall
...............................................
(^60) Chapter 3................................................
Introduction All but the most basic of networks require devices to provide connectivity and functionality. Understanding how these networking devices operate and identifying the functions they perform are essential skills for any network administrator and requirements for a Network+ candidate. This chapter introduces commonly used networking devices, and, although it is true that you are not likely to encounter all of the devices mentioned in this chapter on the exam, you can be assured of working with at least some of them.
Hubs At the bottom of the networking food chain, so to speak, are hubs. Hubs are used in networks that use twisted-pair cabling to connect devices. Hubs can also be joined together to create larger networks. Hubs are simple devices that direct data packets to all devices connected to the hub, regardless of whether the data package is destined for the device. This makes them ineffi- cient devices and can create a performance bottleneck on busy networks. In its most basic form, a hub does nothing except provide a pathway for the electrical signals to travel along. Such a device is called a passive hub. Far more common nowadays is an active hub, which, as well as providing a path for the data signals, regenerates the signal before it forwards it to all of the connected devices. A hub does not perform any processing on the data that it forwards, nor does it perform any error checking. Hubs come in a variety of shapes and sizes. Small hubs with five or eight con- nection ports are commonly referred to as workgroup hubs. Others can accommodate larger numbers of devices (normally up to 32). These are referred to as high-density devices. Because hubs don’t perform any processing, they do little except enable communication between connected devices. For today’s high-demand network applications, something with a little more intelligence is required. That’s where switches come in.
MSAU In a Token Ring network, a multistation access unit (MSAU) is used in place of the hub that is used on an Ethernet network. The MSAU performs the token circulation inside the device, giving the network a physical star appear- ance. Each MSAU has a Ring In (RI) port on the device, which is connected
(^62) Chapter 3................................................
communicate with devices in full-duplex mode. In a full-duplex configura- tion, devices can send and receive data from the switch at the same time. Contrast this with half-duplex communication, in which communication can occur in only one direction at a time. Full-duplex transmission speeds are double that of a standard, half-duplex, connection. So, a 10Mbps connection becomes 20Mbps, and a 100Mbps connection becomes 200Mbps. The net result of these measures is that switches can offer significant per- formance improvements over hub-based networks, particularly when net- work use is high. Irrespective of whether a connection is at full or half duplex, the method of switching dictates how the switch deals with the data it receives. The fol- lowing is a brief explanation of each method: ➤ Cut-through —In a cut-through switching environment, the packet begins to be forwarded as soon as it is received. This method is very fast, but creates the possibility of errors being propagated through the net- work, as there is no error checking. ➤ Store-and-forward —Unlike cut-through, in a store-and-forward switching environment, the entire packet is received and error checked before being forwarded. The upside of this method is that errors are not propagated through the network. The downside is that the error check- ing process takes a relatively long time, and store-and-forward switching is considerably slower as a result. ➤ FragmentFree —To take advantage of the error checking of store-and- forward switching, but still offer performance levels nearing that of cut- through switching, FragmentFree switching can be used. In a FragmentFree-switching environment, enough of the packet is read so that the switch can determine whether the packet has been involved in a collision. As soon as the collision status has been determined, the packet is forwarded.
Hub and Switch Cabling In addition to acting as a connection point for network devices, hubs and switches can also be connected to create larger networks. This connection can be achieved through standard ports with a special cable or by using spe- cial ports with a standard cable.
............................................... .Networking Devices^^63
The ports on a hub to which computer systems are attached are called Medium Dependent Interface-Crossed (MDI-X). The crossed designation is derived from the fact that two of the wires within the connection are crossed so that the send signal wire on one device becomes the receive signal of the other. Because the ports are crossed internally, a standard or straight-through cable can be used to connect devices.
Another type of port, called a Medium Dependent Interface (MDI) port, is often included on a hub or switch to facilitate the connection of two switch- es or hubs. Because the hubs or switches are designed to see each other as simply an extension of the network, there is no need for the signal to be crossed. If a hub or switch does not have an MDI port, hubs or switches can be connected by using a crossover cable between two MDI-X ports. The crossover cable serves to uncross the internal crossing. You can see diagrams of the cable pinouts for both a straight-through and crossover cable in Figures 3.2 and 3.3, respectively.
(^12) (^34) 5 6 7 8
(^12) (^34) 5 6 7 8
Figure 3.2 The pinouts for a straight-through cable.
In a crossover cable, wires 1 and 3 and wires 2 and 6 are crossed.
............................................... .Networking Devices^^65
Figure 3.4 How a bridge is used to segregate networks.
Bridge Placement and Bridging Loops
There are two issues that you must consider when using bridges. The first is the bridge placement, and the other is the elimination of bridging loops:
➤ Placement —Bridges should be positioned in the network using the 80/20 rule. This rule dictates that 80% of the data should be local and that the other 20% should be destined for devices on the other side of the bridge. ➤ Bridging loops —Bridging loops can occur when more than one bridge is implemented on the network. In this scenario, the bridges can confuse each other by leading one another to believe that a device is located on a certain segment when it is not. To combat the bridging loop problem, the IEEE 802.1d Spanning Tree protocol enables bridge interfaces to be assigned a value that is then used to control the bridge-learning process.
Types of Bridges
Three types of bridges are used in networks:
➤ Transparent bridge —Derives its name from the fact that the devices on the network are unaware of its existence. A transparent bridge does nothing except block or forward data based on the MAC address. ➤ Source route bridge —Used in Token Ring networks. The source route bridge derives its name from the fact that the entire path that the packet is to take through the network is embedded within the packet. ➤ Translational bridge —Used to convert one networking data format to another; for example, from Token Ring to Ethernet and vice versa.
Data not destined for a device on the other network is prevented from passing over the bridge
Bridge
(^66) Chapter 3................................................
Today, bridges are slowly but surely falling out of favor. Ethernet switches offer similar functionality; they can provide logical divisions, or segments, in the network. In fact, switches are sometimes referred to as multiport bridges because of the way they operate.
Routers In a common configuration, routers are used to create larger networks by joining two network segments. Such as a SOHO router used to connect a user to the Internet. A router can be a dedicated hardware device or a com- puter system with more than one network interface and the appropriate routing software. All modern network operating systems include the func- tionality to act as a router.
Routers will normally create, add, or divide on the Network Layer as they are normal- ly IP-based devices.
A router derives its name from the fact that it can route data it receives from one network onto another. When a router receives a packet of data, it reads the header of the packet to determine the destination address. Once it has determined the address, it looks in its routing table to determine whether it knows how to reach the destination and, if it does, it forwards the packet to the next hop on the route. The next hop might be the final destination, or it might be another router. Figure 3.5 shows, in basic terms, how a router works. As you can see from this example, routing tables play a very important role in the routing process. They are the means by which the router makes its decisions. For this reason, a routing table needs to be two things. It must be up-to-date, and it must be complete. There are two ways that the router can get the information for the routing table—through static routing or dynam- ic routing.
Static Routing In environments that use static routing , routes and route information are entered into the routing tables manually. Not only can this be a time-con- suming task, but also errors are more common. Additionally, when there is a
(^68) Chapter 3................................................
Distance Vector Routing The two most commonly used distance vector routing protocols are both called Routing Information Protocol (RIP). One version is used on networks running TCP/IP. The other, sometimes referred to as IPX RIP, is designed for use on networks running the IPX/SPX protocol. RIP works on the basis of hop counts. A hop is defined as one step on the jour- ney to the data’s destination. Each router that the data has to cross to reach its destination constitutes a hop. The maximum number of hops that RIP can accommodate is 15. That is to say that in a network that uses RIP, all routers must be within 15 hops of each other to communicate. Any hop count that is in excess of 15 is considered unreachable. Distance vector routing protocols operate by having each router send updates about all the other routers it knows about to the routers directly connected to it. These updates are used by the routers to compile their rout- ing tables. The updates are sent out automatically every 30 or 60 seconds. The actual interval depends on the routing protocol being used. Apart from the periodic updates, routers can also be configured to send a triggered update if a change in the network topology is detected. The process by which routers learn of a change in the network topology is known as convergence. Although distance vector protocols are capable of maintaining routing tables, they have three problems. The first is that the periodic update system can make the update process very slow. The second problem is that the periodic updates can create large amounts of network traffic—much of the time unnecessarily as the topology of the network should rarely change. The last, and perhaps more significant, problem is that because the routers only know about the next hop in the journey, incorrect information can be propagated between routers, creating routing loops. Two strategies are used to combat this last problem. One, split horizon , works by preventing the router from advertising a route back to the other router from which it was learned. The other, poison reverse (also called split horizon with poison reverse), dictates that the route is advertised back on the inter- face from which it was learned, but that it has a metric of 16. Recall that a metric of 16 is considered an unreachable destination.
Link State Routing Link state routing works quite differently from distance vector-based rout- ing. Rather than each router telling each other connected router about the routes it is aware of, routers in a link state environment send out special packets, called link state advertisements (LSA) , which contain information only about that router. These LSAs are forwarded to all the routers on the
............................................... .Networking Devices^^69
network, which enables them to build a map of the entire network. The advertisements are sent when the router is first brought onto the network and when a change in the topology is detected.
Of the two (distance vector and link state), distance vector routing is better suited to small networks and link state routing to larger ones. Link state pro- tocols do not suffer from the constant updates and limited hop count, and they are also quicker to correct themselves (to converge) when the network topology changes.
On TCP/IP networks, the most commonly used link state routing protocol is the Open Shortest Path First (OSPF). On IPX networks, the NetWare Link State Protocol (NLSP) is used. Table 3.1 summarizes the distance vec- tor and link state protocols used with each network protocol.
It is necessary to know which distance vector and link state routing protocols are associated with which network protocols.
Table 3.1 Routing Protocols Network Protocol Distance Vector Link State TCP/IP RIP OSPF IPX/SPX RIP* NLSP
IPX RIP Sometimes, to distinguish between the versions of RIP for IP and IPX, the version for IPX is referred to as IPX RIP.
Gateways
Any device that translates one data format to another is called a gateway. Some examples of gateways include a router that translates data from one network protocol to another, a bridge that converts between two networking systems, and a software application that converts between two dissimilar for- mats. The key point about a gateway is that only the data format is translat- ed, not the data itself. In many cases, the gateway functionality is incorpo- rated into another device.
............................................... .Networking Devices^^71
To install or configure a network interface, you will need drivers of the device, and might need to configure it, although many devices are now plug and play. Most network cards are now software configured. Many of these software configuration utilities also include testing capabilities. The drivers and software configuration utilities supplied with the cards are often not the latest available, so it is best practice to log on to the Internet and download the latest drivers and associated software.
ISDN Adapters
Integrated Services Digital Network (ISDN) is a remote access and WAN tech- nology that can be used in place of a Plain Old Telephone Service (POTS) dial-up link if it is available. The availability of ISDN depends on whether your local telecommunications service provider offers the service, the quali- ty of the line to your premises, and your proximity to the provider’s location. ISDN offers greater speeds than a modem and can also pick up and drop the line considerably faster.
If ISDN is available and you do elect to use it, a special device called an ISDN terminal adapter is needed to connect to the line. ISDN terminal adapters can be add-in expansion cards, external devices that connect to the serial port of the system, or specialized interfaces built in to routers or other networking equipment. The ISDN terminal adapter is necessary because, although it uses digital signals, the signals are formatted differently from those used on a LAN. In addition, ISDN can create multiple communication channels on a single line. Today, ISDN is not widely deployed and has been replaced by faster and often cheaper technologies.
Wireless Access Points
Wireless access points (APs) are a transmitter and receiver (transceiver) device used to create a wireless LAN (WLAN). APs are typically a separate network device with a built-in antenna, transmitter, and adapter. APs use the wireless infrastructure network mode to provide a connection point between WLANs and a wired Ethernet LAN. APs also typically have several ports allowing a way to expand the network to support additional clients.
When working on a Token Ring network, you have to ensure that all network cards are set to transmit at the same speeds. NICs on an Ethernet network can operate at different speeds.
(^72) Chapter 3................................................
Depending on the size of the network, one or more APs might be required. Additional APs are used to allow access to more wireless clients and to expand the range of the wireless network. Each AP is limited by a transmis- sions range—the distance a client can be from a AP and still get a useable sig- nal. The actual distance depends on the wireless standard being used and the obstructions and environmental conditions between the client and the AP.
A WAP can operate as a bridge connecting a standard wired network to wireless devices or as a router passing data transmissions from one access point to another.
Saying that an AP is used to extend a wired LAN to wireless clients doesn’t give you the complete picture. A wireless AP today can provide different services in addition to just an access point. Today, the APs might provide many ports that can be used to easily increase the size of the network. Systems can be added and removed from the network with no affect on other systems on the network. Also, many APs provide firewall capabilities and DHCP service. When they are hooked up, they will provide client systems with a private IP address and then prevent Internet traffic from accessing client systems. So in effect, the AP is a switch, a DHCP Server, router, and a firewall. APs come in all different shapes and sizes. Many are cheaper and designed strictly for home or small office use. Such APs have low powered antennas and limited expansion ports. Higher end APs used for commercial purposes have very high powered antennas enabling them to extend the range that the wireless signal can travel.
APs are used to create a wireless LAN and to extend a wired network. APs are used in the infrastructure wireless topology.
Modems A modem , short for modulator/demodulator, is a device that converts the dig- ital signals generated by a computer into analog signals that can travel over conventional phone lines. The modem at the receiving end converts the sig- nal back into a format the computer can understand. Modems can be used as a means to connect to an ISP or as a mechanism for dialing up to a LAN.
(^74) Chapter 3................................................
Table 3.3 UART Chip Speeds UART Chip Speed (Kbps) 8250 9600 16450 9600 16550 115, 16650 430, 16750 921, 16950 921,
Keep in mind that Internal modems have their own UARTs, but External modems use the UART that works with the Com Port.
If you have installed an internal modem and are experiencing problems with other devices such as a mouse, there might be a resource conflict between the mouse and the modem. Also, legacy ISA NICs often use IRQ3 and might conflict with the modems.
Transceivers (Media Converters) The term transceiver does describe a separate network device, but it can also be technology built and embedded in devices such as network cards and modems. In a network environment, a transceiver gets its name from being both a transmitter and a receiver of signals—thus the name transceivers. Technically, on a LAN, the transceiver is responsible for placing signals onto the network media and also detecting incoming signals traveling through the same wire. Given the description of the function of a transceiver, it makes sense that that technology would be found with network cards. Although transceivers are found in network cards, they can be external devices as well. As far as networking is concerned, transceivers can ship as a module or chip type. Chip transceivers are small and are inserted into a sys- tem board or wired directly on a circuit board. Module transceivers are external to the network and are installed and function similarly to other com- puter peripherals, or they can function as standalone devices. There are many types of transceivers—RF transceivers, fiber optic trans- ceivers, Ethernet transceivers, wireless (WAP) transceivers, and more. Though each of these media types are different, the function of the
............................................... .Networking Devices^^75
transceiver remains the same. Each type of the transceiver used has different characteristics, such as the number of ports available to connect to the net- work and whether full-duplex communication is supported.
Listed with transceivers in the CompTIA objectives are media converters. Media converters are a technology that allows administrators to interconnect different media types—for example, twisted pair, fiber, and Thin or thick coax—within an existing network. Using a media converter, it is possible to connect newer 100Mbps, Gigabit Ethernet, or ATM equipment to existing networks such as 10BASE-T or 100BASE-T. They can also be used in pairs to insert a fiber segment into copper networks to increase cabling distances and enhance immunity to electromagnetic interference (EMI).
Firewalls
A firewall is a networking device, either hardware or software based, that controls access to your organization’s network. This controlled access is designed to protect data and resources from an outside threat. To do this, firewalls are typically placed at entry/exit points of a network—for example, placing a firewall between an internal network and the Internet. Once there, it can control access in and out of that point.
Although firewalls typically protect internal networks from public networks, they are also used to control access between specific network segments with- in a network—for example, placing a firewall between the Accounts and the Sales departments.
As mentioned, firewalls can be implemented through software or through a dedicated hardware device. Organizations implement software firewalls through network operating systems (NOS) such as Linux/UNIX, Windows servers, and Mac OS servers. The firewall is configured on the server to allow or permit certain types of network traffic. In small offices and for reg- ular home use, a firewall is commonly installed on the local system and con- figured to control traffic. Many third-party firewalls are available.
Hardware firewalls are used in networks of all sizes today. Hardware firewalls are often dedicated network devices that can be implemented with very little configuration and protect all systems behind the firewall from outside sources. Hardware firewalls are readily available and often combined with other devices today. For example, many broadband routers and wireless access points have firewall functionality built in. In such case, the router or WAP might have a number of ports available to plug systems in to.
............................................... .Networking Devices^^77
Modem Provides serial Modems modulate the digital signal communication into analog at the sending end and capabilities across phone perform the reverse function at the lines. receiving end. Transceiver Coverts one media type to A device that functions as a another, such as UTP to transmitter and a receiver of signals fiber. such as analog or digital. Firewall Provides controlled data Firewalls can be hardware or access between networks. software based and are an essential part of a networks security strategy.
MAC Addresses
A MAC address is a unique 6-byte address that is burned into each network interface or more specifically, directly into the PROM chip on the NIC. The number must be unique, as the MAC address is the basis by which almost all network communication takes place. No matter which networking protocol is being used, the MAC address is still the means by which the network inter- face is identified on the network. Notice that I say network interface. That’s very important, as a system that has more than one network card in it will have more than one MAC address.
MAC addresses are expressed in six hexadecimal values. In some instances, the six values are separated by colons (:); in others, hyphens (-) are used; and in still others, a space is simply inserted between the values. In any case, because the six values are hexadecimal, they can only be numbers 0–9 and the letters A–F. So, a valid MAC address might be 00-D0-56-F2-B5-12 or 00-26-DD- 14-C4-EE. There is a way of finding out whether a MAC address exists through the IEEE, which is responsible for managing MAC address assign- ment. The IEEE has a system in place that lets you identify the manufactur- er of the network interface by looking at the MAC address.
For example, in the MAC address 00-80-C8-E3-4C-BD, the 00-80-C8 portion identifies the manufacturer and the E3-4C-BD portion is assigned by the man- ufacturer to make the address unique. The IEEE is the body that assigns manufacturers their IDs, called Organizationally Unique Identifiers, and the manufacturer then assigns the second half, called the Universal LAN MAC address. From the IEEE’s perspective, leaving the actual assignment of
Table 3.4 Network Devices Summary (continued) Device Function/Purpose Key Points
(^78) Chapter 3................................................
addresses to the manufacturers significantly reduces the administrative over- head for the IEEE.
As discussed, MAC addresses are expressed in hexadecimal format. For that reason, they can only use the numbers 0–9 and the letters A–F. There are only six bytes, so a MAC address should be six groups of two characters. Any other number of char- acters or any answer that contains a letter other than those described can be imme- diately discounted as an answer.
The method by which you can discover the MAC address of the network interfaces in your equipment depends on which operating system is being used. Table 3.5 shows you how to obtain the MAC address on some of the more common platforms.
Be prepared to identify the commands used to view a MAC address as shown in Table 3.5. You might be asked to identify these commands on the Network+ exam.
Table 3.5 Commands to Obtain MAC Addresses Platform Method Windows 95/98/Me Run the winipcfg utility. Windows NT/2000 Run ipconfig /all from a command prompt. Linux/Some UNIX Run the ifconfig -a command. Novell NetWare Run the config command. Cisco Router Run the sh int command.
As you work with network interfaces more, you might start to become famil- iar with which ID is associated with which manufacturer. Although this is a skill that might astound your friends and impress your colleagues, it won’t help you with the Network+ exam. Just knowing what does, and doesn’t, rep- resent a valid MAC address will be sufficient on the exam.
Review and Test Yourself The following sections provide you with the opportunity to review what you learned in this chapter and to test yourself.
