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Muscular System - Human Anatomy and Physiology II - Study Guide | BIOL 207, Study notes of Physiology

Longwood University Physiology

Prof. Donald Merkle

test 2 Material Type: Notes; Professor: Merkle; Class: Human Anat Physiology II; Subject: Biology; University: Longwood University; Term: Spring 2010;

Typology: Study notes

2009/2010

Uploaded on 12/07/2010

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MUSCULAR SYSTEM

Characteristics of muscle

- Specialized for contraction

- Highly vascularized (blood)

- Highly innervated (nerves)

- No mitotic activity in adult (except for smooth muscle)

Types of Muscle

- Skeletal = “meat”

- Cardiac= myocardium

- Smooth= blood vessels + organs (vasoconstriction+ vasodilation)

Skeletal Muscle

- Usually connects bones to other bones

- Striated

- Multi-nucleated (nuclei tend to cluster along edges of cells)

- Voluntary movement

Cardiac Muscle

- Striated

- One nucleus per cell (nucleus is in center of cell)

- Intercalated discs between cells

- Involuntary, auto-rhythmic (heart rate starts at SA node)

Smooth Muscle

- Spindle shaped cell

- No striations

- Single nucleus

- Involuntary

- Located inside organs + blood vessels (tunica muscularis + tunica media)

Uses for Muscle Contractions

- Movement

- Heat production (erector pili)

- Maintain posture

Electrical Properties of Cells

- Cations  (+)

- Anions(-)

Ion Concentrations

- More potassium inside cell

- More sodium outside the cell

Millivolt (mv) = 1/1000 V

Resting Potential

- Difference between inside and outside of a cell

- Present in ALL living cells

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MUSCULAR SYSTEM

 Characteristics of muscle

Specialized for contraction
Highly vascularized (blood)
Highly innervated (nerves)
No mitotic activity in adult (except for smooth muscle)  Types of Muscle
Skeletal = “meat”
Cardiac= myocardium
Smooth= blood vessels + organs (vasoconstriction+ vasodilation)  Skeletal Muscle
Usually connects bones to other bones
Striated
Multi-nucleated (nuclei tend to cluster along edges of cells)
Voluntary movement  Cardiac Muscle
Striated
One nucleus per cell (nucleus is in center of cell)
Intercalated discs between cells
Involuntary, auto-rhythmic (heart rate starts at SA node)  Smooth Muscle
Spindle shaped cell
No striations
Single nucleus
Involuntary
Located inside organs + blood vessels (tunica muscularis + tunica media)  Uses for Muscle Contractions
Movement
Heat production (erector pili)
Maintain posture Electrical Properties of Cells
Cations  (+)
Anions(-)  Ion Concentrations
More potassium inside cell
More sodium outside the cell  Millivolt (mv) = 1/1000 V  Resting Potential
Difference between inside and outside of a cell
Present in ALL living cells

Typically -70 mv relative to the outside
Two factors that produce this:
1. Sodium pump
2. Differential permeability  Three criteria for active transport
Use energy (ATP)
Use carrier molecule
Go against concentration gradient (moves high to low) 36 ATP PER GRAM OF GLUCOSE ATP= ADENINE TRIPHOSPHATE (A-R-P-P-P= “NUCLEOTIDE”)  Action potential
Change in permeability (first to sodium=rising phase, then to potassium= falling phase)
Action potentials cause changes in membrane permeability only muscle and nerve cells have action potential
Membrane becomes permeable to sodium, sodium enters cell, potential goes from -70 to +30 then potassium exits cell and potential drops back down to -  Two ends of a muscle
Origin- the fixed end
Insertion- the moveable end  Connective Tissue Coverings
Epimysium- covers entire muscle
Perimysium- covers muscle bundle
Endomysium- covers individual muscle cells  Sarcomere
Basic unit of function
Z lines separate sarcomeres
Sarcolemma dips down into cell at z lines to form t-tubules
Modifications of sarcoplasmic reticulum are located there – called lateral cisternae which store calcium ions.  Myofilaments
Myosin= thick myofilaments, has cross bridges
Actin= thin myofilaments
Titan= connect myosin to the z lines
Myosin and actin are made to build muscle (ex: lifting weights), cells “turn on” genes to make these proteins  Inhibitory Proteins
Troponin- attached to the protein tropomyosin and lies within the groove between actin filaments in muscle tissue
Tropomyosin- blocks myosin binding and hence crossbridge cycling in the absence of Ca  Bands (striations)

AP goes down to sarcolemma to t-tubules
Causes calcium to be released  Two Uses for Calcium During Contraction
Binds with inhibitory proteins allowing cross bridges from myosin to connect to actin
Acts as con-enzyme for ATPase to break down ATP allowing cross bridges to rotate inward
ATPASE WILL NOT WORK UNLESS CALCIUM IS PRESENT  Motor Unit
The end of a neuron and all of the muscle cells it innervates  After Contraction
Calcium is pumped back into lateral cisternae by calcium pump
ACH is destroyed by enzyme cholinesterase- release from motor end plate  Kymograph
Device used to study muscle physiology
Need living muscle tissue
Pith the frog (must destroy brain so animal does not feel any pain, pain centers located in brain)  Muscle Twitch
Latent period
Period of contraction
Period of relaxation  All or none principle
Muscle cells contract fully (100%) or not at all
Sub threshold stimulus- no cells respond
Threshold stimulus- lowest voltage that will produce minimal contraction (one motor unit)
Sub maximal stimulus- increasing number of motor units respond
Maximal stimulus- lowest voltage required to stimulate all cells
Supra maximal stimulus- above maximal threshold, all units respond  Treppe
Staircase effect
“warming up” phenomena
Maximal stimulus changes, becomes higher
As a muscle gets warmer it can contract more

Basis for warming up exercises  Tetanus
Results from repeated stimulation of muscle (without full relaxation)
Incomplete tetanus- partial relaxation between twitches
Complete tetanus- no relaxation between twitches  Importance of Tetanus
All muscle contractions require multiple stimuli
Even quick contractions like blinking an eye require complete tetanus  Refractory Period
The time period when a muscle cannot respond to stimuli
Cardiac muscle has a long refractory period so it cannot go into complete tetanus ( atrial systally, atrial diastally, ventricle systally, ventricle diastally)  Injury
Sprains- injury to ligaments due to overstretching
Strains- injury to muscle do to overstretching  Types of Nerves
Cholinergic- neurons release Acetylcholine (ACH)
Adrenergic- neurons release norepinepherine (NOR)
These act antagonistically on muscles  Hyper-polarization
Resting potential due to changing potassium permeability (approx. -100mv)
Way to inhibit or prevent muscle contractions
Release of NOR from adrenergic neurons
Increases potassium permeability
Used for antagonistic muscles  Oxygen Debt
Ability of skeletal muscles to function in the absence of oxygen
Three storage forms (must have all )

Myoglobin- stores oxygen
Glycogen- stores glucose (70-110 in blood)  Polysaccharide- osmotically inactive, found in liver and skeletal muscle
Creatine phosphate- stores ATP

Cells convert creatine phosphate into ATP
Cells break down glycogen to form glucose
As long as myoglobin has oxygen, cell can make 36 ATP
Once oxygen is depleated, cells can only make 2 ATP and produce lactic acid
Lactic acid causes muscle fatigue
All 3 storage forms must be replenished

 Divisions of the Nervous System

Central nervous system (CNS)  Brain  Spinal cord
Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)  Nerves  12 pairs of cranial nerves  31 pairs of spinal nerves  Characteristics

Specialized for conduction of electrical currents= action potential
Highly vascularized
No mitotic activity  Structures
Brain
Spinal cord
Nerves
Receptor organs (eyes, ears, etc)  Types of Cells
Neurons- conduct impulses
Neuroglial cells- helper or accessory cells, also called glial cells  Neuron
Dendrite
Body
Axon  Types of Neuroglial Cells
Schwann cells- produce myelin
Oligodendrocytes- produce myelin
Ependymal cells- line brain ventricles
Satellite cells- function unknown (possibly involved in nutrition)
Astrocytes- make connections between neurons  Development of CNS
46 chromosomes
Neural groove- first sign CNS is developing
Cells eventually reconnect over top forming neural tube
Turns into brain (tube end) and the rest becomes the spinal cord

Telensephalon- cerebral hemisphere
Diensephalon- thalamus, hypothalamus, hypophysis (pituitary), infindibulum
Mesensephalon- corpora quadragemini- superior calliculi, inferior calliculi
Metensephalon- cerebellum, pons
Myelensephalon- medula oblongata  Cerebral Hemisphere- one side of brain

White= myelin axons
Gray= no myelin axons (located on outside) INTELLIGENCE CENTERS LOCATED IN CEREBRUM  Differential growth causes unsmooth surface texture
Fast growing= gyrus (hill)
Slow growing= sulcus (valley)  Decussation of Pyramids- crossing over in medulla oblongata that is responsible for right brain controlling left body and left brain controlling right body  Hypothalamus

Mad Cow disease
Kuru – Laughing Death, long incubation time, eating human brains (New Guinea)  Astrocytes
Most abundant type of glial cells
Connect/support neurons
Anchor neurons to capillaries  Blood Brain Barrier
Most white blood cells and toxins are not allowed in brain (destroy brain tissue)
Tight seal of cells that line blood vessels in brain- a.k.a. Blood Brain Barrier  Microglial Cells
Long, “thorny” processes
Became macrophages
Important: cells of immune system CANNOT get into CNS  Ependymal Cells
Lines cavities of brain and spinal cord
Form semi-permeable barrier between cerebrospinal fluid and interstitial fluid (between cells)
** Edema= tissue swelling  Satellite Cells
Surround neuron body in PNS
Unknown function  All or None Principle
Either send an Action Potential or you don’t  Neurochemical Transmitters
Each neuron can only release one chemical
Cholenergic neurons- release ACH
Adrenergic neurons- release NOR  Junction of Neurons
Synapse
Neuroglandular junctions
Neuromuscular junctions  Parallel circuits
Action potentials can travel down several pathways at the same time
Diverging- increase number of pathways
Converging- decrease number o fpathways  Reverberating Circuits
Ex. Hiccups  Synaptic delay
The more neurons in pathway, the longer it takes for the action potential to reach the end

 Nerves are just a bundle of Neurons

Coverings in a nerve o Epineurium o Perineurium o Endoneurium  Neural Tube Defects
Spina bifida- bone doesn’t frown over spinal cord, lack of vitamin B
Anencephaly- no brain by water toxins
Encephalocele- extra brain, needs protecting over NEURAL TUBE DEFECTS OCCUR SO EARLY IN PREGNANCY THAT MOST WOMEN ARE UNAWARE THEY ARE PREGNANT BEFORE THE DEFECTS OCCUR. 400 mg OF FOLIC ACID DAILY CAN HELP TO PREVENT THESE DEFECTS  Cerebrum- learning and processing center  Frontal Lobe- associated with speech, movement, emotions, and problem solving  Parietal- associated with movement, orientation, recognition, perception of stimuli  Occipital lobe- associated with usual processing  Temporal lobe- associated with perception and recognition of auditory stimuli, memory and speech  Insula- associated with visceral functions, integrate autonomic information  Phineas Gage- frontal lobe destroyed in railroad accident, change in personality  Corpus callosum
Thick band of tissue that connects right and left cerebral hemispheres
Association fibers connect
The right and left cerebrum are not equal- left brain is analytical, right brain is creative  Central Sulcus
Separates the frontal lobe from the parietal lobe
Precentral gyrus- controls motor movement
Post central gyrus- controls sensory input  Homonculus- “little man”
Motor and sensory
Can locate blood clot based on what part of body has issue  Right brain controls left body and vica versa due to Decussation of pyramids in the medulla oblongata  Diencephalon
Thalamus
Hypothalamus
Hypophesis= pituitary  Thalamus
Major cross roads in brain

Pia mater- delicate mother
Arachnoid membrane- looks like spider web
Dura mater- tough mother  Subarachnoid space- between arachnoid membrane and pia mater (filled with CSF)  Meningitis
Inflammation of meninges
Bacterial
Viral less severe
High fever, headache, stiff neck
Risks increased by intimately kissing with multiple partners and living in crowded buildings
Teens are most at risk population  Cerebrospinal fluid
Four enlarged ventricles in brain
Produced by special capillaries (choroid plexus) in the roof of the ventricles
Circulates in subarachnoid space
Reabsorbed by arachnoid villi  4 ventricles
2 lateral below corpus callosum
3 rd^ ventricle around thalamus
4 th^ ventricle below cerebellum  Hydrocephalus- water on the brain
Increase in amount of CSF
In children drained from brain to abdominal cavity  Brain waves
Measured by electroencephalogram (eeg)
Alpha waves
Beta waves
Theta waves
Delta waves  Epilepsy
Spontaneous generation of action potential sin cerebral cortex- primarily precentral gyrus
Two types of seizures o Gran mal  loss of consciousness, full body o Petite mal remain conscious, not total body
Medications hyperpolarize cells o Increase K+ permeability by increasing NOR o Cells become more negative- further away from threshold, harder to generate action potential  Cerebral Palsy

Not progressive
Not hereditive
Problem from birth  Alzeheimer’s
Accumulation of abnormal proteins (causes aluminum buildup)
B amyloid plaques brain
Tangles kill neurons by damaging critical parts of transport system
Brain shrinks, memory is lost
Genetic link apolipoprotein E (ApoE)  Parkinson’s disease
Lack of dopamine-producing brain cells
L-dopa drugs used to treat  Circle of Willis
Stroke= interruption of flow of blood to brain
Special arrangement of blood vessels and anastomoses on the base of the brain
Cuts down on the likelihood of stroke damaging central part of brain  Attached blood clot- thrombus  Free blood clot- embolus  Cranial nerves
12 pairs that arise from the brain
Given roman numeral, designation, and name
Named in order- anterior to posterior I. Olfactory II. Optic III. Oculomotor IV. Tochlear V. Trigeminal VI. Abducens VII. Facial VIII. Vestibulocochlear/ auditory IX. Glossopharyngeal

Indian yogis can stop their heart at will
Some people can control where the blood in their body flows  Parts of the spinal cord
Conus medullaris- tapered end of spinal cord at L-
Filum terminale- continuation of meninges to the coccyx
Cauda equine- “horses tail” tuft of nerves that emerge below L-  Enlargement
Cervical- nerves to arms
Lumbar- nerves to legs Ganglion- large group of nerves (only dorsal, not ventral)  Roots of spinal nerves  Dorsal Root – afferent or sensory neurons go into dorsal horns  Ventral Root – efferent of motor neurons come from ventral horns  Shingles
Same virus that causes chicken pox- varicella zoster virus
Virus lives in dorsal ganglion
May become reactivated
Most commonly occurs after age 60
2006 vaccine approved  The ventral ramus is always larger than the dorsal ramus because there is more in front of spinal cord than behind it  Poliomyelitis
Virus causes destruction of the ventral horns of the spinal nerves
Impulses can no longer get to the muscles
Two types of vaccine o Salk- uses killed virus o Sabin – uses weakened live virus
Reason why you get more than one shot, or booster vaccines:

 31 pairs

8 cervical
12 thoracic
5 lumbar
5 sacral
1 coccygeal  Naming of Spinal nerves
Cervical- named for vertebrae that lies below
All others- named for vertebrae that lies above  Reflex arc- patella reflex
Receptor
Afferent neuron
Integrator (brain or spinal cord)
Efferent neuron
Effector  Gray matter  White matter in spinal cord
To feel pain must use ascending tracts
To respond descending tracts bring information down the spinal cord  Protection of spinal cord
Bone (vertebral cavity)
Meninges (as in brain)
Cerebrospinal fluid (central canal and subarachnoid space)
Denticulate ligaments keep spinal cord centered (lateral extensions of pia mater)  Dermatomes
Regions of the body innervated by a specific spinal nerve  Spinal cord ends at L-
Subarachnoid space continues to coccyx
Good place to take samples of CSF
Or to introduce anasthetics o Subdural or saddle back  Plexus
Fusion of adjacent ventral ramus/ rami
Cervical
Brachial
Lumbar
Sacral  Spinal cord injuries
Paraplegic (low on spinal cord, no use of legs)
Quadriplegic (high on spinal cord)  Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS)
“Lou Gehrig’s” disease

Muscular System - Human Anatomy and Physiology II - Study Guide | BIOL 207, Study notes of Physiology

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MUSCULAR SYSTEM