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An idea about mindfulness and how it is to be understood.
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Supervisor: Submitted by: Dr. Balbinder Singh …………….. Assistant Professor Department Of Psychology IGNOU
CONTENTS
INTRODUCTION Mindfulness Mindfulness has received considerable attention in the last few years in both applied and basic research psychology (Van Dam, 2018). Mindfulness is usually defined to include bringing one’s complete attention to the experiences occurring in the present moment, in a non-judgmental or accepting way (Brown & Ryan, 2003; Kabat-Zinn, 1990; Marlatt & Kristeller, 1999). “Mindfulness means paying attention in a particular way; on purpose, in the present moment, and non-judgmentally.”(Kabat-Zinn, 1991). Attention and awareness are relatively constant features of normal functioning; mindfulness can be considered enhanced attention to and awareness of current experience or present reality (Brown & Ryan, 2003). Specifically, a core characteristic of mindfulness has been described asopen orreceptive awareness and attention (Martin, 1997), which may be reflected in a more regular or sustained consciousness of ongoing events and experiences. Awareness of attention can also be divided, such as when people are occupied with multiple tasks or preoccupied with concerns that detract from the quality of engagement with what is focally present (Brown & Ryan, 2003). Mindfulness is also compromised when individuals behave compulsively or automatically, without awareness of or attention to one’s behavior (Deci & Ryan, 1980). Naik, Harris & Forthun (2013) have suggested three key features of Mindful Awareness:
Purpose – Mindfulness involves intentionally and purposefully directing your attention rather than letting it wander. Presence – Mindfulness involves being fully engaged with and attentive to the present moment. Thoughts about the past and future that arise are recognized simply as thoughts occurring in the present. Acceptance – Mindfulness involves being nonjudgmental toward whatever arises in the moment. This means that sensations, thoughts, and emotions are not judged as good or bad, pleasant or unpleasant; they are simply noticed as “happening,” and observed until they eventually pass. The word “Mindfulness” is an English translation ofVipassana (Buddhist term that is often translated as "insight" - a clear awareness of exactly what is happening as it happens or seeing things as they are." The literal translation is "special seeing."), which is a combination of two wordsVi (in a special way) andPassanna (to see, to observe) which implies observing in a special way. Mindfulness is a form of self-awareness training adapted from Buddhist mindfulness meditation. It refers to non-judgmental awareness of moment-to-moment experience. Through mindfulness practice, a person intentionally pays full attention to whatever is occurring in the present moment without judging it. In addition to Vipassana, Mindfulness meditation, also known as insight meditation, is not new but is an age-old form of meditation practices that derive from Theravada Buddhism (Gunaratana, 2002). Historically, mindfulness has been called “the heart” of
or feelings from moment to moment. It requires both the ability to anchor one's attention on what is occurring and the ability to intentionally switch attention from one aspect of the experience to another. Orientation to experience concerns the kind of attitude that one holds towards one's experience, specifically an attitude of curiosity, openness, and acceptance. It is worth noting that “acceptance” in the context of mindfulness should not be equated with passivity or resignation (Cardaciotto et al., 2008). Rather, acceptance in this context refers to the ability to experience events fully, without resorting to either extreme or excessive preoccupation with, or suppression of, the experience. In basic research, special interest is shown in dispositional or trait mindfulness and its measurement (Siegling & Petrides, 2014). Although not undisputed consensus about the definition of mindfulness has been reached (Van Dam, 2018), being mindful defines a nonjudgmental, accepting and nonreactive attention or awareness of the present moment (Siegling & Petrides, 2014; Bajaj, Gupta & Pande, 2016; Baer et al., 2019). It seems clear that the experience of states of mindfulness varies, on average, from person to person, which suggests the existence of a dispositional tendency toward mindfulness or stable individual differences in mindfulness (Mesmer-Magnus et al., 2017). Accordingly, dispositional mindfulness is conceptualized as a personality-like trait that refers to the tendency to be mindful in everyday life (Bajaj, Gupta & Pande, 2016; Mesmer-Magnus et al., 2017). Mindfulness refers to intentional open awareness and attention to the present moment in a nonjudgmental manner and has both state and trait-like qualities (Brown & Ryan,
2003; Kabat-Zinn, 1994). This meta-awareness or meta-experiential process involves a pre-conceptual, intuitive, and perceptual, rather than a purely cognitive or affective presentation of the given moment (Kabat-Zinn, 2009; Seigel, Germer, & Olendzki, 2009). Mindfulness offers a unique mode of perception of ongoing present moment experience as it is, that allows an individual the freedom to view thoughts and feelings as impermanent, transient mental events (Frewen et al., 2008; Wells, 2002). The natural and innate capacity to inhabit this stance is described as dispositional mindfulness and can be considered an intrinsic characteristic, the expression, and experience of which varies significantly (Bishop et al., 2004; Kabat-Zinn, 2003). This capacity can be expanded or cultivated through the use of various techniques or meditative traditions (Bishop et al., 2004; Brown & Ryan, 2003; Linehan, 1993). Individual differences in dispositional mindfulness have begun to emerge in research populations with strong implications for self-regulation, psychological adjustment, and well-being (Baer, Smith, & Allen, 2004; Brown & Ryan, 2003, 2004; Shapiro & Schwartz, 2000). Mindfulness has been correlated with an array of positive psychological outcomes and in the facilitation of highly adaptive regulatory processes that influence proactive or effective responses to present situational demands (Brown, Ryan, & Creswell, 2007). Baer et al. (2004) proposedfive aspects or facets of mindfulness that can help us in measuring this experience of being mindful. These areobservation,description,acting with awareness, non-judgmental inner experience, and non-reactivity to inner experience.
seems susceptible to change with practice and training, according to a recent systematic review and meta-analysis (Baer et al., 2019). Psychological Flexibility Psychological flexibility is defined as being in contact with the present moment, fully aware of emotions, sensations, and thoughts, welcoming them, including the undesired ones, and moving in a pattern of behavior in the service of chosen values. In simpler words, this means accepting our own thoughts and emotions and acting on long-term values rather than short-term impulses, thoughts, and feelings that are often linked to experiential avoidance and a way to control unwanted inner events (Hülsheger et al., 2013). In simple words, own thoughts and emotions are held a bit more lightly, and long- term values and goals are acted on, rather than current thoughts, impulses, and feelings, in a flexible manner. Four elements beyond those concerned with values and committed actions are proposed: Mindfulness i.e., being in contact with the present moment, Acceptance i.e., allowance of inner experience in a non-judgmental way, Defusion i.e., detachment of thoughts, and, finally, Self as context, this means realizing that you are experiencing thoughts rather being the content of these thoughts (Hayes et al., 1999). The concepts of psychological flexibility and inflexibility are based on acceptance and
commitment therapy and have emerged as one of the main results of ACT (Hayes et al., 1999; Simon & Verboon, 2016; Tanhan, 2019). ACT is a cognitive behavioral therapy focused on the development of mental health (Hayes et al., 2006). ACT is a type of CBT including acceptance, awareness and behavior change methods (Hayes et al., 2003). The term psychological flexibility has been used as an inductive unified model of human functioning with a focus on six core integrated processes involved in both human adaptability and suffering (Hayes, Strosahl, & Wilson, 2012). Psychological flexibility is considered a multi-dimensional overarching process encompassing psychological health and psychopathology (Hayes, Stosahl, & Wilson, 2012). Thus, this process encompasses behavioral repertoires associated with psychological distress, such as experiential avoidance and with psychological well-being, as in experiential acceptance (Bond et al., 2011; Hayes et al., 2006). Psychological flexibility can be conceptualized as the result of the interaction between six interrelated psychological processes discussed below (Hayes et al., 2006). ACT interventions focus on six basic psychological processes; acceptance involves allowing the experience of internal and external incidences thoroughly. Cognitive defusion involves distancing oneself from mental content rather than defusing oneself. Contacting the present moment means being in a continuous connection with what is happening. Self-as-context reflects what is profoundly cared for. The last one is committed action, which means taking actions reflecting approved values (Hayes, 2016). ACT, a contextual behavioral therapy, requires the person's commitment to his/her valuable goals and acceptance and awareness strategies (Hayes, Strosahl & Wilson, 2012; Hayes et al., 1999). It aims to diminish human suffering through a focus on
compromise personal or social functioning and to adapt to diverse situational demands (Kashdan, & Rottenberg, 2010). Therefore, when stressful events occur, these psychological processes may have a particularly important role in preventing the onset of depression (Biglan, Hayes, & Pistorello, 2008). Psychological flexibility is roughly conceptualized as an overarching regulation process of (a) experiencing the present moment as it is without judgment and avoidance and (b) persisting or changing behavior when doing so serves valued-ends (Hayes et al., 2006). Psychological flexibility has been of great interest in recent years as accumulating evidence has supported its salutary effects. As such, a model has been developed to explain the relationship between psychological flexibility and psychological health. According to the psychological flexibility model (Hayes et al., 2006), greater psychological well-being is characterized by open and flexible contact with one’s own internal and external environment and by the commitment to value-consistent activities. Conversely, many forms of psychopathology are conceptualized in terms of diminished psychological flexibility, which is marked by the excess of maladaptive affect/behavior regulations (e.g., thought suppression and avoidance) and by the deficits of contingency-sensitive and valued-directed behaviors. Accumulating evidence has shown that psychological flexibility is positively associated with psychological well-being and inversely associated with a wide range of distress, including depression (Bond & Bunce, 2000), anxiety (Kashdan et al., 2006), and general psychological distress (Masuda et al., 2011; Plumb, Orsillo & Luterek, 2004; & Tull et al., 2004). Subjective well-being (SWB)
Subjective well-being (SWB) is derived from the hedonic view of well-being (Richard and Edward, 2001). The hedonic view maintains that pursuing feelings of pleasure is the ultimate goal of life and that SWB reflects the degree of pleasure and the satisfaction of an individual’s life (Falikowski, 2004). The literature seems to suggest that mindfulness practice can enhance participants’ SWB by increasing positive affect and decreasing negative affect (Anderson et al., 2007; Collard et al., 2008; Kieviet-Stijnen et al., 2008; Liu et al., 2013; Shapiro et al., 2011). Subjective well-being refers to how people experience and evaluate their lives and specific domains and activities in their lives. Over the past decade, interest in information about SWB (also called “self-reported wellbeing”) has increased markedly among researchers, politicians, national statistical offices, the media, and the public. Subjective well-being refers to the extent to which a person believes or feels that his or her life is going well and is considered as one of the best available proxies for a broader, more canonical form of well-being (Diener et al., 2018). Subjective well-being (SWB) is a self-reported measure of well-being, typically obtained by questionnaire. Measures of subjective wellbeing aim to capture people’s self-reported thoughts and feelings about various aspects of life e.g. life satisfaction, happiness, work, relationships, psychological wellbeing (Waldron, 2010). According to Diener (2000, p.34), SWB is: “people’s cognitive and affective evaluations of their lives.” Veenhoven (1997, p.34) describes it similarly – as cognitive and affective appraisals cover “how good [one’s life] feels, how well it meets expectations, how desirable it is deemed to be, etc.”
Sadava, 2011). The two affect components are typically assessed independently of the life satisfaction component, using different scales. SWB, therefore, encompasses moods and emotions as well as evaluations of one's satisfaction with general and specific areas of one's life (Diener et al., 1999). SWB is one definition of happiness. Although SWB tends to be stable over time (Diener et al., 1999) and is strongly related to personality traits (Steel, Schmidt & Shultz, 2008), the emotional component of SWB can be impacted by situations; for example, the onset of the COVID-19 outbreak.
2003). As mindfulness increases as a result of interventions, such as meditation training, well-being also tends to increase (Falkenstrom, 2010; Fredrickson et al., 2008; Zautra et al., 2008). Researchers found that 8-week mindfulness meditation can increase participants’ left- sided anterior activation, which is considered to be correlated with positive affect (Davidson et al., 2003). Meanwhile, other researchers also found that mindfulness training can decrease activation in the amygdala (Desbordes et al., 2012) which is considered to be correlated with negative affect (Schaefer et al., 2002). In general, it is now accepted that mindfulness has a positive relationship with SWB (Brown and Ryan, 2003; Collard et al., 2008). While the relationship between mindfulness and SWB is known, the mechanism for this positive link is under-explored. Schutte and Malouff (2011) found that emotional intelligence mediates the relationship between trait mindfulness and SWB. However, this is only one aspect of emotion regulation that might explain the relationship between mindfulness and SWB. This study aimed to find the mechanism of the positive link between mindfulness and SWB by investigating the role of self-acceptance and tolerance. The correlations have been reported for samples of undergraduate students (e.g., Baer et al., 2006; Brown & Ryan, 2003), community adults (e.g., Brown & Ryan, 2003; Chadwick et al., 2008) and clinical populations (e.g., Baer, Smith, & Allen, 2004; Chadwick et al., 2008; Walach et al., 2006). A substantial amount of research findings point to the fact that psychological well-being can be enhanced by the use of adaptive emotion regulation strategies (Extremera et al., 2019). According to those researchers,
Garnefski and Kraaij (2007) posited that there are individual differences in the way different people self-monitor the effect of maladaptive emotions by using adaptive and maladaptive cognitive emotion regulation strategies. Mindfulness has been shown to have positive effects on mental health and psychological well-being (e.g., depression, anxiety), physical health (e.g., chronic pain), and quality of intimate relationships (Baer, 2003; Brown & Ryan, 2003; Brown et al., 2007; Grossman et al., 2004). Mindfulness has been theoretically and empirically associated with psychological wellbeing. The elements of mindfulness, namely awareness and nonjudgmental acceptance of one's moment-to-moment experience, are regarded as potentially effective antidotes against common forms of psychological distress - rumination, anxiety, worry, fear, anger, and so on - many of which involve the maladaptive tendencies to avoid, suppress, or over- engage with one's distressing thoughts and emotions (Hayes & Feldman, 2004; Kabat- Zinn, 1990). Psychological Flexibility and Subjective Well-being Acceptance and psychological flexibility have been documented to have a positive effect on psychological well-being (Hayes and Strosahl, 2004). This construct is further understood by the principles underlying acceptance and commitment therapy by Hayes et al. (1999). According to Bond et al. (2006), psychological flexibility is defined as "contacting the present moment as a conscious human being, and, based on what that situation affords, acting following one's chosen values" (Hayes et al., 2004). Bond et al. (2006) have mentioned that "psychological flexibility guides people in persisting with or changing their actions, by the values-based contingencies that they contact when they are willing to experience the present moment.” According to the psychological flexibility
