Docsity
Docsity

Prepare for your exams
Prepare for your exams

Study with the several resources on Docsity


Earn points to download
Earn points to download

Earn points by helping other students or get them with a premium plan


Guidelines and tips
Guidelines and tips

Understanding Social Movements: A Look into Industry Structures and Countermovements, Summaries of Decision Making

The concept of social movements and their interaction with countermovements, focusing on the importance of understanding the structures and processes of both. The text delves into the works of various sociologists, including Zald and McCarthy, and discusses the role of de-mobilization, de-escalation, and the mass media in mobilization and demobilization. It also touches upon the economists' concept of industry structure and its applicability to social movement industries.

Typology: Summaries

2021/2022

Uploaded on 09/27/2022

ilyastrab
ilyastrab 🇺🇸

4.4

(52)

382 documents

1 / 14

Toggle sidebar

This page cannot be seen from the preview

Don't miss anything!

bg1
MACRO ISSUES IN THE THEORY OF SOCIAL MOVEMENTS
SMO Interaction, the Role of
Counter-Movements and Cross-National
Determinants of the Social Movement Sector
Mayer
N.
Zald
University of Michigan
August
1979
.
.
.
-
. .
--------------------------------------------------..
CRSO
Working Paper No. 204 Copies available through:
Center for Research on
Social Organization
University of Michigan
330 Packard Street
Ann Arbor, Michigan
48109
pf3
pf4
pf5
pf8
pf9
pfa
pfd
pfe

Partial preview of the text

Download Understanding Social Movements: A Look into Industry Structures and Countermovements and more Summaries Decision Making in PDF only on Docsity!

MACRO ISSUES I N THE THEORY OF SOCIAL MOVEMENTS

SMO I n t e r a c t i o n , t h e Role o f

Counter-Movements and Cross-National

Determinants o f t h e S o c i a l Movement Sector

Mayer N. Z a l d

U n i v e r s i t y o f Michigan

August 1979

CRSO Working Paper No. 204 Copies a v a i l a b l e through:

Center f o r Research on

S o c i a l O r g a n i z a t i o n

U n i v e r s i t y o f Michigan

330 Packard S t r e e t

Ann Arbor, Michigan 48109

MACRO ISSUES I N THE THEORY OF SOCIAL MOVEMENTS
MACRO ISSUES I N THE TIIEORY OF SOCIAL MOVEMENTS

SMO I n t e r a c t i o n , t h e Role of .Counter-Movements and Cross-National Determinants of t h e S o c i a l Movement S e c t o r *

v a y e r N. Zald Department of Sociology and School of S o c i a l Work

. U n i v e r s i t y of Michigan

Paper d e l i v e r e d a t t h e a n n u a l meeting of t h e American S o c i o l o g i c a l Associa- t i o n , Boston, M a s s a c h u s e t t s , 1979. *It h e i r em i n d e b t e dc r i t i c a l comments. t o Linda Kaboolian, D a n i e l Steinmetz and John D. McCarthy f o r

P r o d u c t i o n of t h i s paper h a s been a i d e d by a g r a n t from t h e U n i v e r s i t y of Michigan's Phoenix P r o j e c t f o r r e s e a r c h on t h e p e a c e f u l u s e s of atomic power.

I n r e c e n t y e a r s , many s o c i a l movement t h e o r i s t s and r e s e a r c h e r s have loosened t h e i r t i e s t o c o l l e c t i v e b e h a v i o r a n a l y s i s and moved c l o s e r t o p o l i t i c a l s o c i o l o g y. The s o u r c e s of t h i s s h i f t have been s e v e r a l : 1 ) t h e e v e n t s of the, 1960s-the anti-war movement, t h e c i v i l r i g h t s movement, t h e a n t i - a b o r t i o n move- m e n t , t h e r i s e of t h e womens' movement, l e d both p a r t i c i p a n t and o b s e r v e r t o h i g h l i g h t t h e i n t e r a c t i o n of p o l i t i c a l p r o r e s n and change w i t h s o c i a l movcment

p r o c e s s e s ; 2 ) e m p i r i c a l s t u d i e s t e s t i n g i n d i v i d u a l i s t i c a s s u m p t i o n s a b o u t

p e r s o n a l s t r a i n and d e p r i v a t i o n , assumptions which u n d e r l i e some v e r s i o n of c o l l e c t i v e b e h a v i o r t h e o r y , have found them wanting; 3) t h e development of r e s o u r c e m o b i l i z a t i o n t h e o r y provided t o o l s of a n a l y s i s more c o m p a t i b l e w i t h p o l i t i c a l s o c i o l o g i c a l and p o l i t i c a l - e c o n o m i c b a s i c assumptions and g u i d i n g metaphors. Resource m o b i l i z a t i o n t h e o r y comes i n s e v e r a l g u i s e s. (^) I n McCartliy end Zald (1973, 1 9 7 7 ) , i t h a s an e c o n o m i s t i c s l a n t , w i t h a good d e a l of emphasis on t h e i n f r a - s t r u c t u r e of s o c i e t a l s u p p o r t , i n d u s t r y c o m p e t i t i o n , c o s t - b e n e f i t of modes of m o b i l i z a t i o n , and t h e l i k e. I n its more p o l i t i c a l g u i s e ( c f. T i l l y ) , s o c i a l movement a c t i v i t y is a c o n t i n u a t i o n of p o l i t i c a l a c t i v i t y , d i r e c t l y a f f e c t e d by t h e p o l i t i c a l s t r u c t u r e s and p r o c e s s e s of t h e l a r g e r s o c i e t y , s o c i a l movement a c t i v i t y is n e s t e d amongst t h e moves of i n d i v i d u a l s and groups c o n t e n d i n g f o r power. Whatever t h e i r g u i s e , r e s o u r c e m o b i l i z a t i o n approaches move t o c e n t e r s t a g e rnacro-scopic i s s u e s of t h e o r g a n i z a t i o n of movements and t h e i r

e e d t and Countormovement

A s o c i a l movement can be d e f i n e d a s a s e t of m o b i l i z e d p r e f e r e n c e s f o r s o c i a l change i n a s o c i e t y. Using t h i s v e r y i n c l u s i v e d e f i n i t i o n l e a v e s open

t o q u e s t i o n how much change is sought and how t h e p r e f e r e n c e s m a n i f e s t them-

s e l v e s i n o r g a n i z e d a c t i v i t y. , P r e f e r e n c e s f o r change w i t h o u t m a n i f e s t behavior o r m o b i l i z a t i o n w i l l be c e l l e d a l a t e n t s o c i a l movement. A countermovement i s a s e t of p r e f e r e n c e s opposed t o t h o s e changes. No s p e c i f i c d i r e c t i o n is i m p l i e d by t h e s e d e f i n i t i o n s. Movements can be "backward" l o o k i n g o r f o r - ward l o o k i n g , l e f t o r r i g h t. Countermovements occur i n r e s p o n s e t o movements.

The concept of s l a t e n t movement and countermovement is u s e f u l t o combat a

p o s s i b l e a h i s t o r i c a l u s e of t h e c o n c e p t o f movement and countermovement. For i n s t a n c e , i t would be a n i i i t a k e t o s e e t h e a n t i - a b o r t i o n countermovement a s

just a r e s p o n s e t o t h e a b o r t i o n movement. The b e l i e f s^ opposing^ a b o r t i o n were

w e l l i n p l a c e , indeed i n s t i t u t i o n a l i z e d. They become m o b i l i z e d , transformed i n t o an a c t i v e countermovement,in r e s p o n s e t o t h e s u c c e s s f u l a c t i o n s of pro- a b o r t i o n movement and a u t h o r i t i e s. Both movement and countermovement can be d e s c r i b e d i n terms of t h e u s u a l components of s o c i a l movement a n a l y s i s - - s u p p o r t b a s e s , movement o r g a n i - z a t i o n , t a c t i c s , SMO i n t e r a c t i o n , and t h e l i k e. What,^ however,^ a r e^ t h e major p r o b l e m a t i c s of SM-CSM i n t e r a c t i o n? I^ have^ i d e n t i f i e d^ f o u r o v e r l a p p i n g i s s u e s :

1 ) At^ a^ g l o b a l l e v e l ,^ what^ is^ t h e b e s t^ way^ t o c o n c e p t u a l i z e

movement-countermovement i n t e r a c t i o n?

2 ) How does^ t h e^ l e v e l of^ ,. .m o b i l i z a t i o n ' a n d .. .^ p r o g r e s s^ of^ a movement a f f e c t t h e l e v e l o f ' r d o b i l i z a t i ~and t h e p r o g r e s s of a countermovement? 3 ) How d o e s^ t h e l o c a t i o n of^ a movement-and^ countermov&ent^ i n t h e s o c i a l s t r u c t u r e a f f e c t t h e i r i n t e r a c t i o n s 7

4 ) R e l a t e d t o t h e above b u t more narrowly f o c u s e d , how d o e s

t h e r e l a t i o n of movement and countermovement t o a u t h o r i t i e s a f f e c t t h e t a s k s and t a c t i c s of each? C o n c e p t u a l i z i n g Movement-Countermovement I n t e r a c t i o n. I^ b e l i e v e^ t h a t t h e b e s t metaphor f o r t h i n k i n g a b o u t SM-CSM i n t e r a c t i o n i s t o t h i n k of them a s n a t i o n s a t war. SMs and CSMs command p o o l s of r e s o u r c e 8 t o be used i n a v a r i e t y of b a t t l e f i e l d s. (^) J u s t a s one n a t i o n may be s t r o n g e r a t s e a and weaker on l a n d , s o an SM may be s t r o n g e r on t h e s t r e e t s and weaker i n t h e c o u r t s. Moreover, a v i c t o r y o r d e f e a t i n one a r e n a o r b a t t l e f i e l d s h i f t s t h e l o c u s of a t t a c k , t h e nodal p o i n t f o r t h e n e x t major b a t t l e f i e l d. (^) For i n s t a n c e , once t h e p r o - a b o r t i o n f o r c e s won t h e Supreme Court t o i t s s i d e , a n t i ' s s h i f t e d t o t h e i s s u e of u s e of f e d e r a l f u n d s. I presume t h a t a n t i ' s - a b o r t i o n i s t s would. l i k e t o g a i n Supreme Court s u p p o r t. (^) Yet u n t i l new c o n s t i t u t j. o n a 1 grounds a r e found, o r a d i f f e r e n t r e a d i n g of t h e biology of " l i f e " i s c o n v i n c i n g l y p r e - s e n t e d , t h i s b a t t l e f i e l d is moot. The c o u r s e of t h e war a f f e c t s t h e s a l i e n t n o d a l p o i n t s & t h e a b i l i t y t o m o b i l i z e r e s o u r c e s. In t h e c o u r s e of t h e war. an SM, much l i k e a s t a t e. may u s e up a l l of its r e s o u r c e s.. o r through a l l i a n c e s g a i n added r e s o u r c e s. The war metaphor h a s s e v e r a l l i m i t a t i o n s. F i r s t , t h e metaphor i m p l i e s r e l a t i v e l y u n i f i e d a n t a g o n i s t s , y e t SMs a r e b e s t d e s c r i b e d i n terms of c o n g e r i e s of groups and M O s ( s i n c e wars a r e o f t e n f o u g h t by c o n l i t i o n s , t h i s is a m a t t e r of d e g r e e ). Second, t h e n a t u r e of t h e b a t t l e , t a c t i c s , and

r e s o u r c e s a r e q u i t e d i f f e r e n t i n war and i n s o c i a l movement. Wars^ always imply t h e u s e of p h y s i c a l c o e r c i o n ; some s o c i a l movements may b a t t l e o n l y w i t h p e r s u a s i v e t e c h n i q u e s. T h i r d ,^ t h e s t a t e may a c t^ a s a r b i t r a t o r^ and g u i d e where no t h i r d p a r t y c o n s t r a i n s wars, a t l e a s t n o t between major powers, Yet t h e a d v a n t a g e s of u s i n g t h e metaphor a r e q u i t e s t r i k i n g. At each p o i n t i n t i m e , i t s e t s a frame f o r weighing tlie a d v a n t a g e s and d i s a d v a n t a g e s f a c i n g each p a r t y t o t h e c o n f l i c t. Moreover, i t opens up s o c i a l movement a n a l y s i s t o t h e powerful a n a l y s i s of t a c t i c a and t a c i t b a r g a i n i n g stemming from game t h e o r y and a n a l y s i s of s t r a t e g i c b a r g a i n i n g ( S c h e l l i n g ). M o b i l i z a t i o n P r o c e s s e s Thinking a b o u t^ s o c i a l movement-countermovement i n t e r a c t i o n a s g r o u p s a t war h i g h l i g h t s an i m p o r t a n t p r o c e s s c e n t r a l t o any i n t e r - g r o u p c o n f l i c t ; m o b i l i z a t i o n of one p a r t h e i g h t e n s o r a f f e c t s t h e m o b i l i z a t i o n of o t h e r p a r t i e s. Two d e c a d e s ago, James S , Coleman (1957) published a l o n g paper on community c o n f l i c t. It h a s n o t heen s u p p l a n t e d and is d i r e c t l y r e l e v a n t t o o u r t a s k h e r e. Two a s p e c t s of h i s a n a l y s i s a r e e s p e c i a l l y i m p o r t a n t. F i r s t , t h e emergence of a c o n f l i c t i s s u e p o l a r i z e s o r i n c r e a s e s c l e a v a g e i n a community. Second, t h e m o b i l i z a t i o n of one s i d e i n a c o n f l i c t i s s u e c r e a t e s t h e c o n d i t i o n s f o r tlie m o b i l i z a t i o n of t h e o t h e r s i d e. How d o e s i t c r e a t e t h e c o n d i t i o n s f o r m o b i l i z a t i o n of t h e o p p o s i t i o n? F i r s t t h e SM t h r e a t e n v a l u e s , ( s a l i e n t i n t e r e s t s ) ; i t r a i s e s t h e p r o b a b i l i t y of l o s s , u n l e s s a c t i o n i s t a k e n , Second, t h e m o b i l i z a t i o n of a n SM-C-SMO~p r e s e n t s h a r p t h r e a t s around which t h e y c a n mount s p e c i f i c d e f e n s i v e a c t i o n ; t h a t is, t h e o c t i v i t i e s of t h e movement o r countermovement c r e a t e c l e a r l i n e s of a l t e r n a t i v e a c t i o n f o r t h e i r c o u n t e r p a r t. Often MOs and C-MOs can n o t m o b i l i z e because t h e i r program of a c t i v i t i e s is o n l y remotely r e l a t e d t o p e r c e i v e d chances of g o a l a t t a i n m e n t. But^ t h e c r e a t i o n o r m o b i l i z a t i o n^ of^ an a c t i v e movement s h a r p e n s t h e t h r e a t t o t h e l a t e n t countermovement.

The i d e a of a s p i r a l of c o n f l i c t o r i n c r e a s e d p o l a r i z a t i o n a s a c a u s e of m o b i l i z a t i o n i s a t t r a c t i v e , b u t t o o s i m p l e. F i r s t , we need t o have a b e t t e r u n d e r s t a n d i n g of t h e c o u n t e r p a r t p r o c e s s e s of d e - m o b i l i z a t i o n and d e - e s c a l a t i o n. They a r e n o t merely r e c i p r o c a l t o t h e m o b i l i z a t i o n p r o c e s s. NOS w i l l f i g h t f o r s u r v i v a l , o r g a n i z a t l o n a l s c h i s m s and mergers may t a k e p l a c e , t a c t i c a l changes o c c u r. Second, we need t o c o n s i d e r t h e p o s s i b i l i t y t h a t under some c o n d i t i o n s , m o b i l i z a t i o n of a movement o r coilntermovement d e c r e a s e s t h e m o b i l i z a t i o n of t h e o t h e r s i d e : sometimes m o b i l i z a t i o n of one s i d e i n c r e a s e s h o p e l e s s n e s s and d e s p a i r and i n t e r f e r e s w i t h e x p e c t a t l o n s of s u c c e s s , key e l e m e n t s of an i m p l i c i t risk-reward a n a l y s i s. F i n a l l y , tlie r o l e o f t h e mass media i n m o b i l i z a t i o n and d e m o b i l i z a t i o n must be b e t t e r understood. Do t h e y o p e r a t e a s s c o r e k e e p e r s , c s l l i n g and s i g n a l l i n g t r e n d s i n m o b i l i z a t i o n and d e m o b i l i z a t i o n? L o c a t i o n i n t h e S o c i a l S t r u c t u r e. J u s t^ a s n a t i o n n^ a t^ wor^ c a n be d e s c r i b e d i n terms of t h e i r g e o - p o l i t i c a l and economic r e s o u r c e s s o , t n o , c s n SMs and C-SM b e d e s c r i b e d by t h e i r l o c a t i o n and r e s o u r c e s i n t h e s o c i a l s t r u c t u r e. Movement and countermovement a r e d e s c r i b e d by: a ) t h e number and s o c i a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of a d h e r e n t s , b ) t h e number and k i n d s of MOa, c ) t h e t a c t i c s of M O s (which l i n k t o r e s o u r c e s ) , d ) i d e o l o g y , and 3) t h e e x p e c t a t i o n s of s u p p o r t e r s , S i n c e

SM and M have d i f f e r e n t o r g a n i z a t i o n s and l o c a t i o n s , t h e i r t a c t i c a l and

s t r a t e g i c o p p o r t u n i t i e s v a r y. For i n s t a n c e , t h e a n t i - n u c l e a r power movement h a s c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s ofamassmovement, w h i l e t h e pro-nuclear power movement resembles more an i n s t i t u t i o n a l i z e d p r e s s u r e group w i t h one o r two peak

a s s o c i a t i o n s. It^ is^ hard^ t o^ imagine^ t h e pro-nuclear^ power movement^ m o b i l i z i n g

a march on Washington, w h i l e t h e o n t i - n u k e s have. On t h e o t h e r hand, t h e p r o s have enormous r e s o u r c e s of t e c h n o l o g i c a l e x p e r t i s e , f a r outweiglling t h e a n t i s.

Hypothesis 2. The r a n g e of a p p e a l s and t h e v a r i e t y of o r g a n i z a t i o n i s p a r t l y r e l a t e d (^) t o t h e h e t e r o g e n e i t y of p o t e n t i a l s u p p o r t e r s (p, 1 2 ) , Hypothesis 4. Assuming t h a t SMOs a r e competing f o r s i m i l a r a u d i e n c e s , a s SMOs w i t h i n a n i n d u s t r y become f u r t h e r a p a r t i n t h e i r concept of t h e amount of change and t h e t a c t i c s r e q u i r e d , r a n c o r o u s c o n f l i c t i n c r e a s e s ( p. 1 4 ).

Hypothesis 6. Domain agreements a r e more l i k e l y t o be reached a l l o w i n g

extended c o o p e r a t i o n among SMOs w i t h i n t e r - d e p e n d e n t t a s k s p e c i a l i z a - t i o n s. t h a n among t h o s e which p u r s u e s i m i l a r g o a l s w i t h s i m i l a r t a c t - i c a l formulas. Hypothesis 8, The m o r e. t h e (board) i n t e r l o c k s , t h e g r e a t e r t h e coopera- t i o n among SMOs. I am persuaded by l o g i c and e m p i r i c a l c a s e s t h a t Zald and McCarthy a r e

on t h e r i g h t t r a c k. Here want t o r a i s e two i s s u e s t h e y d i d n ' t d i s c u s s : 1 )

what d e t e r m i n e s whether a i n d u s t r y is l o c a l l y based and fragmented o r h a s a more n a t i o n a l y o r i e n t e d f o c u s? 2) How d o e s a n MO dominate a MI? Local and N a t i o n a l S t r u c t u r e s I n o u r 1977 snd 1980 p a p e r s , we s l i d e r i g h t by a n i s s u e t h a t d e s e r v e s e x p l i c i t t r e a t m e n t. We nod i n t h e d i r e c t i o n of Gerlach and Hine (1970), b u t i n p r a c t i c e i g n o r e them. Because Gerlach and Hine f o c u s upon l o c a l i d e o l o g i c a l and s o l i d a r y groups and we were more i n t e r e s t e d i n t h e g a r n e r i n g of r e s o u r c e s and i n f l u e n c i n g a u t h o r i t i e s , no r e a l a t t e m p t h a s been made t o i n t e g r a t e t h e two. I n t e g r a t i o n o f t h e two p e r s p e c t i v e s may g i v e a c l u e t o t h e d e t e r m i n a n t s of i n d u s t r y s t r u c t r l r e. G e r l a c h and Hine d e s c r i b e t h e pentecostalmovement and t h e Black Power movement a s being s i m i l a r i n t h a t tliey a r e d e c e n t r a l i z e d , segmented, and r e t i c u l a t e d. D e c e n t r a l i z a t i o n r e f e r s t o t h e l o c a l autonomy of u n i t s i n msking d e c i s i o n s ; segmented r e f e r s t o t h e e x t e n t t o which u n i t s o f f e r s l i g h t l y d i f f e r e n t programs f o r members from d i f f e r e n t backgrounds; r e t i c u l a t e d r e f e r s t o t h e communication and l e a r n i n g t h a t o c c u r s between

u n i t s. I presume t h a t movements might a l s o be c e n t r a l i z e d and i n t e g r a t e d ,. A u n i f i e d r e v o l u t i o n a r y movement w i t h one encompassing SMO might be an example. Some movements, u s u a l l y t h o s e o f f e r i n g i n d i v i d u a l change, and s a l v a t i o n f i t t h e ' G e r l a c h and Hine model. (^) But a s i n g l e SMO i n a s a l v a t i o n - and i n d i v i d u a l l y - o r i e n t e d movement may p r o v i d e a c e n t r a l i z e d s t r u c t u r e of program and t a c t i c s. I assume t h e U n i f i c a t i o n Church of t h e Reverend Moon f i l l s t h e b i l l. As John Lofland ( i n Zald and & c a r t h y , 1979) a n a l y z e s t h e r e s o u r c e m o b i l i z a t i o n t e c h n i q u e s of a m i l l e n a r i a n s e c t , mushrooming on t h e n s t i o n a l s c e n e , i t resembles t h e a n a l y s i s of Zald and McCarthy much more t h a n (^) t h a t of Gerlach and Hine. S t i l l o t h e r movements combine t h e l o c a l i s t i c f e a t u r e s d e s c r i b e d by G e r l a c l ~and Hine a s w e l l a s multiple,natlonal.politically-oriented MOs. The modern f e m i n i i t movement f i t s t h i s d e s c r i p t i o n. (See J o ~ i e e m a ni n Zald and McCarthy, 1979). A way t o a n a l y z e t h i s v a r i e t y of s t r u c t u r e s may be found by u s i n g t h e economists concept of a i n d u s t r y s t r u c t u r e. Let me d e s c r i b e t h e components of i n d u s t r y s t r u c t u r e more e x p l i c i t l y. Economists d e s c r i b e s t r u c t u r e s l a r g e l y i n terms o f. t h e d e g r e e of c o n c e n t r a - t i o n o f f i r m s s e r v i n g a market. A fragmented i n d u s t r y h a s many f i r m s s e r v i n g a market; a c o n c e n t r a t e d o r m o n o p o l i s t i c i n d u s t r y h a s few f i r m s , o r o n l y one, s e r v i n g a market. I f t r a n s p o r t a t i o n c o s t s a r e high and l o c a l i n f o r m a t i o n i s a t a premium, a market may be s m a l l , l o c a l , and monopolized w i t h i n , y e t a t a n a t i o h a l o r g a n i z a t i o n a l l e v e l be l a r g e and fragmented ( t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n i n d u s t r y is t h e prime c u r r e n t example). T r a n s p o r t a t i o n c o s t s a r e high i n c o n s t r u c t i o n , because, i t would be d i f f l c u l t t o pool l a b o r

i n one o r j u s t a few assembly s i t e s o r t o move l a b o r t o and from j u s t a few o f f i c e s. I n d u s t r y s t r u c t u r e r e f e r s t o t h e number and d e g r e e of c o n c e n t r a t i o n of e s t a b l i s h m e n t s ( p l a n t s , p r o d u c t i v e u n i t s ) and e n t e r p r i s e s ( o r f i r m s ; t h a t is, l i n k e d e s t a b l i s h m e n t s ) ' i n an a c t u a l market. A n a l y s i s of s t r u c t u r e s examines both t h e d e g r e e of c o n c e n t r a t i o n and t h e c a u s e s of t h e d e g r e e of c o n c e n t r a t i o n ( f o r example, r e n t , b a r r i e r s t o e n t r y , economies of s c a l e , and t h e l i k e ). The s t r u c t u r e , o f an SMI is shaped by: 1 ) t h e amount of demand f o r its p r o d u c t s ; 2 ) t h e o r g a n i z a t i o n a l - t e c h n o l o g i c a l r e q u i r e m e n t s t o d e l i v e r i t s product; and 3) t h e amount of i d e o l o g i c a l and o r g a n i z a t i o n a l hegemony of t h e g o a l s l e a d i n g SMOs. "Products" o r g o a l s , a r e v a r i e d b u t may be e i t h e r i n d i v i d u a l o r c o l l e c t i v e. To t h e e x t e n t t h a t a movement o f f e r s i n d i v i d u a l s a t i s f a c t i o n and change, s o l i d a r i t y , and i n t e r p e r s o n a l s a t i s f a c t i o n s , it must have small u n i t s d e l i v e r i n g rewards a t t h e l o c a t i o n of p o t e n t i a l numbers. That is, SMOs cannot d e l i v e r s o l i d a r i t y through t h e m a i l s o r o v e r r a d i o o r N. The "product" e n t a i l s a l o c a l u n i t , To t h e e x t e n t t h a t a n SMO works a t changing n a t i o n a l o r s t a t e laws, i t must have u n i t s a g g r e g a t i n g demands and r e s o u r c e s and lobbying o r p r e s s i n g a t t h o s e l e v e l s ( c f. S a l s b u r y , 1968) An SMO with n a t i o n a l - l e v e l p o l i t i c a l g o a l s can do w i t h o u t l o c a l u n i t s. I t could c o l l e c t r e s o u r c e s and s u p p o r t from i s o l a t e d i n d i v i d u a l c o n s t i t u e n t s o r from major c e n t r a l i z e d f u n d i n g s o u r c e s and^ have a^ c e n t r a l i z e d^ l o b b y i n g and media development u n i t. An SMO o r i n d u s t r y p r e s s i n g f o r s t a t e a c t s must

1 A n n l y s t s sometimes b l u r t h e d i s t i n c t i o n between p l a n t s ( e s t a b l i s h m e n t s ) and f i r m s ( e n t e r p r i s e s ). They do do a t c o n s i d e r a b l e h a z a r d.

d e v e l o p s t a t e - l e v e l c o n s t i t u e n c i e s and v e h i c l e s f o r r e p r e s e n t i n g it.^2 Thus, a s movement g o a l s i n c l u d e b o t h p o l i t i c a l and i n d i v i d u a l a s p e c t s , we would e x p e c t a more complex n a t i o n a l and l o c a l s t r u c t u r e. Elsewhere (1977) we have argued how i n c r e a s e d market s i z e ( i n c r e a s e d demand) l e a d s t o t h e e n t r a n c e of new c o m p e t i t i o r s i n an i n d u s t r y. There a r e few b a r r i e r s t o e n t r y t o s o c i a l movement o r g a n i z a t i o n s : t h e major b a r r i e r seems t o be t h e n e c e s s i t y t o d i f f e r e n t i a t e p r o d u c t s - g o a l s o r t a c t i c s s u f f i -

c i e n t l y t o w a r r a n t c o m p e t i t i o n. (Where c o m p e t i t i o n is its own j u s t i f i c a t i o n

amongst b u s i n e s s e s , c o m p e t i t i o n amongst SMOs i n a supposedly a l t r u i s t i c SMI r e q u i r e s j u s t i f i c a t i o n. ) So a s t h e movement grows s o w i l l t h e number of MOs i n t h e i n d u s t r y. But we have l i t t l e i n knowledge of how M I growth a t t h e n a t i o n a l l e v e l r e l a t e s t o M I growth a t t h e l o c a l l e v e l. 1.10 Domination of an I n d u s t r y

How is hegemony o r domination o v e r an i n d u s t r y a c h i e v e d? Economists t r e a t

t h e problem i n t h e i r d i s c u s s i o n s of market s h a r e and l e a d e r s h i p i n c o n c e n t r a t e d i n d u s t r i e s. ( I n t e r e s t i n g l y , economists a r e b e t t e r a t d e s c r i b i n g t h e e f f e c t s of domination, t h a n t h e r e a s o n s a p a r t i c u l a r f i r m comes t o dominate. The l a t t e r i s s u e i s d i s c u s s e d by management t h e o r i s t s. ) What a r e t h e f a c t o r s t h a t l e a d a movement i n d u s t r y t o be monopolized o r dominated by one o r two MOs? Two answers have t r a d i t i o n a l l y been g i v e n , and t h e y a r e n ' t bad o n e s ; f o r^ s h o r t -

hand purposes t h e y c a n be l a b e l e d charisma and c o e r c i o n. A t h i r d snswer is

s u r v i v a l of t h e f i t t e s t. Charisma and Symbolic Hegemony. One p a t h t o i n d u s t r y domination is through t h e c a p t u r e of key symbols. The MO and i t s l e a d e r s a r t i c u l a t e t h e v i s i o n and t h e pathway o r program t o t h e v i s i o n t h a t seems t o g i v e t h e most

' ~ u c h of t h e l i t e r a t u r e of p o l i t i c e l s c i e n c e d e a l i n g w i t h s t a t e and r) n a t i o n a l p o l i t i c s and p r e s s u r e group f i t r u c t u r e may be r e l e v a n t t o t h e a n a l y s i s.

change. D e s c r i p t i v e l y , s e c t o r s d i f f e r i n t h e number of SMIs t h a t a r e a c t i v e , t h e amount of a c t i v i t y a c r o s s t h e i n d u s t r i e s , t h e e x t e n t of a r t i c u l a t i o n of SMIs w i t h e a c h o t h e r , and t h e i d e o l o g i c a l d i s t r i b u t i o n and dominant o r i e n t a - t i o n of t h e movements, (By i d e o l o g i c a l d i s t r i b u t i o n , (^) I mean t h e r a n g e of change g o a l s t h a t a r e a r t i c u l a t e d. F o r c r u d e , h e u r i s t i c p u r p o s e s , t h e d i s t r i - b u t i o n can be d e s c r i b e d on a l e f t - r i g h t continuum o r on t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n of extreme- moderate g o a l s and t a c t i c s ,) Two key i s s u e s a r e t h e a r t i c u l a t i o n of t h e s e c t o r w i t h t h e i n s t i t u t i o n - a l i z e d p o l i t i c a l s t r u c t u r e , and t h e a r t i c u l a t i o n of t h e s e c t o r w i t h t h e

system of s o c i a l c l a s s and c l e a v a g e s. Moreover, s i n c e o u r a n a l y s i s is

h i s t o r i c a l l y grounded, it is i m p o r t a n t t o n o t e t h a t t h e dominant o r i e n t a t i o n of t h e s e c t o r changes o v e r time. The s e c t o r may be mainly concerned w i t h c l a s s and l a b o r i s s u e s i n one t i m e p e r i o d ; i n a n o t h e r i t may be dominated by i s s u e s of environment; i n a n o t h e r i t may be dominated by i s s u e s of p o l i t i c a l a c c e s s ; i n s t i l l a n o t h e r i t may be dominated by i s s u e s of l o c a l r e s i s t a n c e t o t h e spread of s t a t e power. As C h a r l e s T i l l y (1978) h a s s o f o r c e f u l l y (^) t a u g h t u s , tlie forms and d i r e c t i o n s of c o n t e n t i o n change o v e r time and must be r e l a t e d t o t h e changing i n f r a - s t r u c t u r e of s o c i e t y a s w e l l a s t o p o l i t i c a l c h o i c e. (^) A s o l d SMIs win b a t t l e s and d i s a p p e a r o r a r e i n s t i t u t i o n a l i z e d , new i n d u s t r i e s develop r e s p o n s i b i l i t y t o changing o p p o r t u n i t i e s and developments. New SMIs draw upon t h e changing c l e a v a g e s and i s s u e s of s o c i e t y and upon t h e p o t e n t i a l s f o r m o b i l i z a t i o n. Our a n a l y s i s of v a r i e t y i n t h e s o c i a l movement s e c t o r draws upon t h r e e major l i n e s of a n a l y s i s. F i r s t , it assumes t h e r e s o u r c e m o b i l i z a t i o n per- s p e c t i v e. Second, i t u s e s a modern Marxian a n a l y s i s of t h e c l a s s system and t h e changing economic system t o a c c o u n t f o r b o t h t h e dominating o r i e n t a t i o n

of SMIs and t h e s y s t e m i c c r i s e s t h a t breed p e r i o d s of h i g h and low a c t i v i t i e s. T h i r d , i t t r e a t s t h e s t r u c t u r e of p o l i t i c a l s y s t e m s a s a major d e t e r m i n a n t of s o c i a l movement s e c t o r s. I n p a r t i c u l a r , i t examines: 1 ) t h e e x t e n t t o which p a r t i e s and i n s t i t u t i o n s a r t i c u l a t e w i t h t h e r a n g e of s o c i a l c l a s s e s and g r o u p s i n s o c i e t y ; 2) t h e e x t e n t t o whicli t h e p o l i t i c a l p a r t i e s and i n s t i t u - t i o n s f u n n e l o r a g g r e g a t e change p r e f e r e n c e s ; and 3) t h e e x t e n t t o which t h e p o l i t i c a l system d i s c o u r a g e s ( r e p r e s s e s ) n o n - i n s t i t u t i o n a l t z e d a c t i v i t i e s. We draw upon t h e work of p o l i t i c a l s o c i o l o g i s t s and p o l i t i c a l s c i e n t i s t s such a s Duverger, Rokkan, Rose, Dahl, and L i p s e t , a s w e l l a s upon c l a s s a n a l y s t s such a s Abendroth, Hobsbam, and Thompson. I am n o t prepared a t t h i s ttme of o f f e r a s y s t e m a t i c s e t of p r o p o s i t t o n s i n which some a s p e c t of t h e SM s e c t o r is s e e n a s dependent o r caused by some a s p e c t of p o l i t i c a l o r c l a s s s t r u c t u r e. But some i l l u s t r a t i v e p r o p o s i t i o n s and o b s e r v a t i o n s a r e i n o r d e r. 1 ) The s i z e and r a n p e of i s s u e s i n t h e SMs i s i n v e r s e l y r e l a t e d t o tlie c o s t s of m o b i l i z i n g. Where s o c i a l c o n t r o l and r e p r e s s i o n i s high and s y s t e m a t i c and d e s c r e t i o n a r y economic r e s o u r c e s a r e low, s o c i a l movement s c t i v j t y w i l l b e low.

  1. In modern t i m e s , t h e r e l a t i o n of c l s s s o r g a n i z a t i o n t o t h e p a r t y system is a major d e t e r m i n a n t of t h e d e g r e e t o which s o c i a l change p r e f e r e n c e s a r e h i g h l y a r t i c u l a t e d by t h e p a r t i e s. I n p a r t i c u l a r , where t h e l a b o r movement "owned" o r grew up i n c l o s e r e l a t i o n w i t h mass p a r t i e s , change p r e f e r e n c e s have had an a c c e p t a b l e i n s t i t u t i o n a l v e h l c l e. On t h e o t h e r hand, a more autonomous s o c i a l movement s e c t o r d e v e l o p s where e i t h e r t h e p o l i t i c a l p a r t y

s t r u c t u r e i s n o t a r t i c u l a t e d w i t h tlie c l a s s s t r u c t u r e , because t h e p a r t i e s

a r e omnibus v e h i c l e s , o r because they excludcd groups. E v e r y t h i n g e l s e b e i n g e q u a l , a s o c i a l movement s e c t o r s e p a r a t e from t h e e s t a b l i s h e d p o l i t i c a l p a r t i e s i s a more c o s t l y method of a c h i e v i n g change.

I t is more l i k e l y t o be used when t h e p a r t i e s a r e u n r e s p o n s i v e o r do n o t

r e p r e s e n t g r o u p s ' i n t e r e s t s.

  1. The s o c i a l movement s e c t o r i s shaped by t h e s t r u c t u r e of p o l i t i c a l d e c i s i o n making i n a s o c i e t y. The s t r u c t u r e of d e c i s i o n making c a n b e c h a r a c t e r i z e d by its d e g r e e of c e n t r a l i z a t i o n - d e c e n t r a l i z a t i o n and its f r a g m e n t a t i o n w i t h i n any l e v e l of c e n t r a l i z a t i o n. P o l i t i e s v a r y i n t h e e x t e n t t o which power i s c o n c e n t r a t e d a t t h e n a t i o n a l l e v e l o r is widely d i s p e r s e d t o l o c a l and r e g i o n a l l e v e l s. (^) They a l s o v a r y i n t h e e x t e n t t o which c o u r t s , l e g i s l a t u r e s , snd e x e c u t l v e a g e n c i e s p r o v i d e a l t e r n a t i v e venues f o r d e c i s i o n making. As a g e n e r a l p r o p o s i t i o n , t h e g r e a t e r t h e d e c e n t r a l i z a t i o n and d i s a r t i c u l a t i o n of l e v e l s , t h e more t h e o p p o r t u n i t y f o r s o c i a l movement o r g a n i z a t i o n s t o make c l a i m s. Moreover, t h e e x i s t e n c e of d i f f e r e n t i a t e d d e c i s i o n venues e n c o u r a g e s t a c t i c a l d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n among movement o r g a n i z a t i o n s. The c e n t r a l i z a t i o n - d e c e n t r a l i z a t i o n d i s t i n c t i o n h a s r a m i f i c a t i o n s f o r t h e s t r u c t u r e of movements a s w e l l a s f o r t h e s i z e of t h e s e c t o r. I n p a r t i - c u l a r , c e n t r a l i z e d p o l i t i e s encourage s o c i a l movementg t o a g g r e g a t e r e s o u r c e s t o t h a t l e v e l , whereas d e c e n t r a l i z e d p o l i t i e s encourage t h e f o r m a t i o n of l o c a l movements. (See above) A c t i o n becomes f e a s i b l e w i t h o u t r e c o u r s e t o n a t i o n a l p o l i t i c s ( s e e Dahl, 1966).

4 ) The predominant issues of t h e s o c i a l movement s e c t o r a r e shaped by t h e

s t a g e s of economic and p o l i t i c a l development. When t h e emerging n a t i o n s t a t e s a t t e m p t e d t o extend t h e i r power and c o n t r o l o v e r l o c a l economies and popula- t i o n s , t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c r e b e l l i o n of t h e s i x t e e n t h and s e v e n t e e n t h c e n t u r i e s was t h e t a x r e b e l l i o n. Although t a x e s c o n t i n u e t o p r o v i d e g r i s t f o r p o l i t i c a l and s o c i a l movement a c t i o n s , t h e t a x r e b e l l i o n , w i t h l o c a l communities o r

r e g i o n s u s i n g v i o l e n t t a c t i c s a s a s o u r c e of r e s i s t a n c e , h a s d i s a p p e a r e d. A t a l a t e r s t a g e. o f c a p i t a l i s t economic development, i s s u e s of p o l i t i c a l and o r g a n i z a t i o n a l r i g h t s f o r t h e lower c l a s s e s and t h e n of economic s e c u r i t y and working c o n d i t i o n s become dominant i s s u e s. As.new i s s u e s s u r f a c e , t h e o l d i n s t i t u t i o n a l i z e d s o l u t i o n n become i n a d e q u a t e f o r a r t i c u l a t i n g problems and g r i e v a n c e s , and t h e o r i e n t a t i o n of t h e s o c i a l movement s e c t o r changes. I n o u r own t i m e ; t h e l e f t - r i g h t i d e o l o g y of t h e c l a s s - o r i e n t e d p o l i t i c a l s o l u t i o n i s l a r g e l y i r r e l e v a n t t o t h e new i s s u e s of t h e p o s t - i n d u s t r i a l s o c i e t y - - i s s u e s of t h e c o n t r o l of n u c l e a r power, p o l l u t i o n , a l t e r n a t i v e l i f e s t y l e s , and a b o r t i o n have l i t t l e r e l a t i o n t o t h e major c l a s s i s s u e s and p o l i t i c a l forms t h a t dominated t h e e a r l y p a r t of t h e c e n t u r y. Not t h a t t h e y d o n ' t a r t i c u l a t e w i t h t h e i n t e r e s t s of g r o u p s w i t h s p e c i f i c s o c i a l l o c a t i o n s. Indeed t h e y do. But they do n o t a r t i c u l a t e w i t h t h e c o n s t e l l a t i o n of groups and i n s t i t u t i o n a l i z e d c h a n n e l s t h a t r e p r e - s e n t t h e. p o l i t i c a 1 s o l u t i o n oE t h e i n d u s t r i a l r e v o l u t i o n. T h i s d i s s r t i c u l a - t i o n r e p r e s e n t s t h e o p p o r t u n i t y f o r whole new s o c i a l movement i n d u s t r i e s t o grow. Of^ c o u r s e ,^ t h e c u r r e n t^ p a r t y^ system^ is^ p a r t l y^ an outcome of^ e a r l i e r s o c i a l movements, a s c h a l l e n g e r s t o t h e p o l i t y became members of t h e p o l i t y.

5) The s o c i a l movement s e c t o r a l s o r e s p o n d s t o major n a t i o n a l and i n t e r -

n a t i o n a l f o r c e s. The h i s t o r y of major p a r t i e s found i n European c o u n t r i e s - - t h e C h r i s t i a n d e m o c r s t s , t h e s o c i a l i s t s , and t h e communist p a r t i e s - - c a n n o t be w r i t t e n w i t h o u t major a t t e n t i o n t o t h e i n t e r n a t i o n a l p o l i t i c a l s c e n e nor t o t h e s p e c i f i c f a t e of c o u n t e r p a r t p a r t i e s i n o t h e r c o u n t r i e s. S i m i l a r l y. t h e c u r r e n t I s l a m i c r e v i v a l i n I r a n must b e s e e n i n conjunc- t i o n w i t h I s l a m i c fundamentalism throughout t h e broad sweep of m i d d l e e a s t e r n and f a r e a s t e r n c o u n t r i e s. Thus^ t h e^ s t r u c t u r e of^ t h e^ s e c t o r and^ i t s o r i e n t a t i o n i s p a r t l y a r e s p o n s e t o i n t e r n a t i o n a l i d e o l o g i c a l t r e n d s , t o

~ e e r e n c e sf Abendroth, Wolfgang, A S h o r t H i s t o r y of t h e European Working C l a s s , New York: Monthly ~ e v i e wP r e s s , 1972. Coleman, James S., Community C o n f l i c t , Glencoe, I l l i n o i s , F r e e P r e s s , 1957. Dahl, Robert A., pp. 332-402 i n R.A. Dahl ( E d. ) , P o l i t i c a l O p p o s i t i o n s i n Western Democracies. New Haven: Yale U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1966. Duverger, Maurice, P o l i t i c a l P a r t i e s. ' New York: Wiley, 1963. Gerloch, Luther and V i r g i n i a Hine, People, Power and Change: Movements of S o c i a l Transformation.' I n d i a n a p o l i s : Bobbs-Merrill, 1970, Hobabawm, E , J. , The Age of , R e v o l u t i o n , Europe, 1978-1848, London: Weiden- f e l d L Nicolson, 1962. McCnrthy, John D. and Mayer N. Z a l d , "Resource M o b i l i z a t i o n and S o c i a l Movement: A P a r t i a l Theory," i n American J o u r n a l of Sociology 82 (May, 1977), 1212-39. Rokkan, S t e l n , C i t i z e n s , E l e c t i o n s , P a r t i e s. Approaches^ t o^ t h e Comparative

Study of t h e P r o c e s a e s. o f Development, Oslo: U n i v e r s i t e t s f o r l a g e t..

Thompson, E.P., The Making of t h e E n g l i s h Working C l a s s. London: G o l l a n c z , 1.963. T i l l y , C h a r l e s , From M o b i l i z a t i o n t o Revolution. Reading,^ Massachusetts: Addison-Wesley. 1978. Zald; MayerD e c l i n e and N. and Change,"R o b e r t s Ash, i n S o c i a l F o r c e s " S o c i a l Movement O r g a n i z a t i o n s : 44 (March, 1966), 327-41. Growth, Zald, Mayerand Competition among Movement O r g a n i z a t i o n s , " N. and^ John^ D.^ McCarthy,^ " S o c i a l^ Movement i nI n d u s t r i e s : 1,. K r i e s b e r g^ Cooperation (Ed.), ResearchGreenwich, i n C o n n e c t i c u t :S o c i a l Movements, JAI P r e s s , C o n f l i c t and forthcoming. Change, Vol 3. Zald, Mayer N. and John 0. McCarthy ( E d s. ) , The Dynamic of S o c i a l Movements: Resource M o b i l i z a t i o n , Cambridee, M a s s a c h u ~ e t t s : S o c i a l C o n t r o l and Winthrop P u b l i s h e r s , Outcomes. 1979.

A d d i t i o n a l R e f e r e n c e s.. ... , ,, ,. Boulding, Kenneth, C o n f l i c t and Defense, , ,. ,.. ,.. , ,. New York: Harper, 1962,

H e r r i c h , Max C., The S p i r a l of C o n f l i c t. Berkely, C a l , , U n i v e r s i t y of

C a l i f o r n i a P r e s s. K l l l i a n , Lewis, "The F u n c t i o n s of Extremism," S q c i a l Problems. 20, 1, (Summer 1972) pp. 41-48, Mayer, Arno J., Dynamics of C o t i n t e t r e v o l d t i o n i n Ellrope, 1870-1956; An A n a l y t i c Framework. (^) New York: Harper and Row, 1971. O b e r s c h a l l , Anthony, S o c i a l C o n f l i c t and S o c i a l Movements. Englewood C l i f f s : P r e n t i c e - H a l l , 1973. S c h e l l i n g , Thomas C., The S t r a t e g y of C o n f l i c t. New York: G s l a x e , 1963.

WORKING PAPERS OF THE CENTER FOR RESEARCH ON SOCIAL ORGANIZATION

The Center f o r Research on S o c i a l O r g a n i z a t i o n i s a f a c i l i t y o f t h e Department o f Sociology, U n i v e r s i t y o f

Michigan. I t s p r i m a r y m i s s i o n i s t o support t h e r e s e a r c h o f f a c u l t y and s t u d e n t s i n t h e department's S o c i a l

O r g a n i z a t i o n graduate program. CRSO Working Papers r e p o r t c u r r e n t r e s e a r c h and r e f l e c t i o n by a f f i l i a t e s o f t h e

Center; many o f themare p u b l i s h e d elsewhere l a t e r a f t e r r e v i s i o n. Working^ Papers which^ a r e^ s t i l l^ i n p r i n t^ a r e

a v a i 1 a b l e from t h e Center f o r a f e e o f 50 cents p l u s t h e number o f pages i n t h e paper ($1.06 f o r a 56-page paper,

e t c. ). The Center w i 11 photocopy o u t - o f - p r i n t Working Papers a t c o s t ( a p p r o x i m a t e l y f i v e cents p e r page). Recent

Working Papers are:

194 " A d m i n i s t r a t i v e R e g u l a t i o n and I n d u s t r y : A S o c i o l o g i c a l ~ e r s ~ e c t i v e , "by James B. Lowenthal , Michael

A. Berger, and Mayer N. Zald, March 1979, 157 pages.

195 "Sinews o f War," by Charles T i l l y , March 1979, 25 pages.

196 "Trends i n P o l i c y Making and Implementation i n t h e w e l f a r e S t a t e : A P r e l i m i n a r y Statement," by

Mayer N. Zald, May 1979, 20 pages.

197 " S o c i a l Movements and N a t i o n a l P o l i t i c s , " by Charles T i l l y , May 1979, 30 pages.

198 "The^ E f f e c t^ o f^ Roles^ and^ Deeds on^ R e s p o n s i b i l i t y Judgments:^ The^ Normative S t r u c t u r e o f^ Wrongdoing,"

by V. Lee Hamil t o n and Joseph Sanders, J u l y 1979, 71 pages.

199 "The I n s t i t u t i o n a l Contexts o f School Desegregation: C o n t r a s t i n g Models o f Research and P r a c t i c e , "

by Mark A. Chesler, James E. Crowfoot, and Bunyan I. Bryant, J u l y 1979, 123 pages.

200 "Trends i n American ~ o l i t i c a lSociology;" by W i l l i a m A. Gamson, J u l y 1979, 11 pages.

201 " S o c i a l Movement I n d u s t r i e s : Competition and Cooperation Among Movement Organizations," by Mayer N.

Z a l d and John D. McCarthy, August 1979, 32 pages.

202 " P r o l e t a r i a n i z a t i o n :^ Theory^ and^ Research,"^ by Charles^ T i l l y ,^ August^ 1979,^20 pages.

203 ' "Lancashire Chartism and t h e Mass S t r i k e o f 1842: The P o l i t i c a l Economy o f Working Class Contention,"

by B r i a n R. Brown, August 1979, 55 pages.

Request copies o f ' t h e s e papers, t h e complete l i s t s o f Center Working Papers and o t h e r r e p r i n t s , o r f u r t h e r i n f o r -

m a t i o n about Center a c t i v i t i e s from:

. - Center f o r Research on S o c i a l O r g a n i z a t i o n

U n i v e r s i t y o f Michigan

330 Packard S t r e e t

Ann Arbor, Michigan 48109