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The concept of social movements and their interaction with countermovements, focusing on the importance of understanding the structures and processes of both. The text delves into the works of various sociologists, including Zald and McCarthy, and discusses the role of de-mobilization, de-escalation, and the mass media in mobilization and demobilization. It also touches upon the economists' concept of industry structure and its applicability to social movement industries.
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SMO I n t e r a c t i o n , t h e Role of .Counter-Movements and Cross-National Determinants of t h e S o c i a l Movement S e c t o r *
v a y e r N. Zald Department of Sociology and School of S o c i a l Work
. U n i v e r s i t y of Michigan
Paper d e l i v e r e d a t t h e a n n u a l meeting of t h e American S o c i o l o g i c a l Associa- t i o n , Boston, M a s s a c h u s e t t s , 1979. *It h e i r em i n d e b t e dc r i t i c a l comments. t o Linda Kaboolian, D a n i e l Steinmetz and John D. McCarthy f o r
P r o d u c t i o n of t h i s paper h a s been a i d e d by a g r a n t from t h e U n i v e r s i t y of Michigan's Phoenix P r o j e c t f o r r e s e a r c h on t h e p e a c e f u l u s e s of atomic power.
I n r e c e n t y e a r s , many s o c i a l movement t h e o r i s t s and r e s e a r c h e r s have loosened t h e i r t i e s t o c o l l e c t i v e b e h a v i o r a n a l y s i s and moved c l o s e r t o p o l i t i c a l s o c i o l o g y. The s o u r c e s of t h i s s h i f t have been s e v e r a l : 1 ) t h e e v e n t s of the, 1960s-the anti-war movement, t h e c i v i l r i g h t s movement, t h e a n t i - a b o r t i o n move- m e n t , t h e r i s e of t h e womens' movement, l e d both p a r t i c i p a n t and o b s e r v e r t o h i g h l i g h t t h e i n t e r a c t i o n of p o l i t i c a l p r o r e s n and change w i t h s o c i a l movcment
p e r s o n a l s t r a i n and d e p r i v a t i o n , assumptions which u n d e r l i e some v e r s i o n of c o l l e c t i v e b e h a v i o r t h e o r y , have found them wanting; 3) t h e development of r e s o u r c e m o b i l i z a t i o n t h e o r y provided t o o l s of a n a l y s i s more c o m p a t i b l e w i t h p o l i t i c a l s o c i o l o g i c a l and p o l i t i c a l - e c o n o m i c b a s i c assumptions and g u i d i n g metaphors. Resource m o b i l i z a t i o n t h e o r y comes i n s e v e r a l g u i s e s. (^) I n McCartliy end Zald (1973, 1 9 7 7 ) , i t h a s an e c o n o m i s t i c s l a n t , w i t h a good d e a l of emphasis on t h e i n f r a - s t r u c t u r e of s o c i e t a l s u p p o r t , i n d u s t r y c o m p e t i t i o n , c o s t - b e n e f i t of modes of m o b i l i z a t i o n , and t h e l i k e. I n its more p o l i t i c a l g u i s e ( c f. T i l l y ) , s o c i a l movement a c t i v i t y is a c o n t i n u a t i o n of p o l i t i c a l a c t i v i t y , d i r e c t l y a f f e c t e d by t h e p o l i t i c a l s t r u c t u r e s and p r o c e s s e s of t h e l a r g e r s o c i e t y , s o c i a l movement a c t i v i t y is n e s t e d amongst t h e moves of i n d i v i d u a l s and groups c o n t e n d i n g f o r power. Whatever t h e i r g u i s e , r e s o u r c e m o b i l i z a t i o n approaches move t o c e n t e r s t a g e rnacro-scopic i s s u e s of t h e o r g a n i z a t i o n of movements and t h e i r
e e d t and Countormovement
A s o c i a l movement can be d e f i n e d a s a s e t of m o b i l i z e d p r e f e r e n c e s f o r s o c i a l change i n a s o c i e t y. Using t h i s v e r y i n c l u s i v e d e f i n i t i o n l e a v e s open
s e l v e s i n o r g a n i z e d a c t i v i t y. , P r e f e r e n c e s f o r change w i t h o u t m a n i f e s t behavior o r m o b i l i z a t i o n w i l l be c e l l e d a l a t e n t s o c i a l movement. A countermovement i s a s e t of p r e f e r e n c e s opposed t o t h o s e changes. No s p e c i f i c d i r e c t i o n is i m p l i e d by t h e s e d e f i n i t i o n s. Movements can be "backward" l o o k i n g o r f o r - ward l o o k i n g , l e f t o r r i g h t. Countermovements occur i n r e s p o n s e t o movements.
p o s s i b l e a h i s t o r i c a l u s e of t h e c o n c e p t o f movement and countermovement. For i n s t a n c e , i t would be a n i i i t a k e t o s e e t h e a n t i - a b o r t i o n countermovement a s
w e l l i n p l a c e , indeed i n s t i t u t i o n a l i z e d. They become m o b i l i z e d , transformed i n t o an a c t i v e countermovement,in r e s p o n s e t o t h e s u c c e s s f u l a c t i o n s of pro- a b o r t i o n movement and a u t h o r i t i e s. Both movement and countermovement can be d e s c r i b e d i n terms of t h e u s u a l components of s o c i a l movement a n a l y s i s - - s u p p o r t b a s e s , movement o r g a n i - z a t i o n , t a c t i c s , SMO i n t e r a c t i o n , and t h e l i k e. What,^ however,^ a r e^ t h e major p r o b l e m a t i c s of SM-CSM i n t e r a c t i o n? I^ have^ i d e n t i f i e d^ f o u r o v e r l a p p i n g i s s u e s :
movement-countermovement i n t e r a c t i o n?
2 ) How does^ t h e^ l e v e l of^ ,. .m o b i l i z a t i o n ' a n d .. .^ p r o g r e s s^ of^ a movement a f f e c t t h e l e v e l o f ' r d o b i l i z a t i ~and t h e p r o g r e s s of a countermovement? 3 ) How d o e s^ t h e l o c a t i o n of^ a movement-and^ countermov&ent^ i n t h e s o c i a l s t r u c t u r e a f f e c t t h e i r i n t e r a c t i o n s 7
t h e r e l a t i o n of movement and countermovement t o a u t h o r i t i e s a f f e c t t h e t a s k s and t a c t i c s of each? C o n c e p t u a l i z i n g Movement-Countermovement I n t e r a c t i o n. I^ b e l i e v e^ t h a t t h e b e s t metaphor f o r t h i n k i n g a b o u t SM-CSM i n t e r a c t i o n i s t o t h i n k of them a s n a t i o n s a t war. SMs and CSMs command p o o l s of r e s o u r c e 8 t o be used i n a v a r i e t y of b a t t l e f i e l d s. (^) J u s t a s one n a t i o n may be s t r o n g e r a t s e a and weaker on l a n d , s o an SM may be s t r o n g e r on t h e s t r e e t s and weaker i n t h e c o u r t s. Moreover, a v i c t o r y o r d e f e a t i n one a r e n a o r b a t t l e f i e l d s h i f t s t h e l o c u s of a t t a c k , t h e nodal p o i n t f o r t h e n e x t major b a t t l e f i e l d. (^) For i n s t a n c e , once t h e p r o - a b o r t i o n f o r c e s won t h e Supreme Court t o i t s s i d e , a n t i ' s s h i f t e d t o t h e i s s u e of u s e of f e d e r a l f u n d s. I presume t h a t a n t i ' s - a b o r t i o n i s t s would. l i k e t o g a i n Supreme Court s u p p o r t. (^) Yet u n t i l new c o n s t i t u t j. o n a 1 grounds a r e found, o r a d i f f e r e n t r e a d i n g of t h e biology of " l i f e " i s c o n v i n c i n g l y p r e - s e n t e d , t h i s b a t t l e f i e l d is moot. The c o u r s e of t h e war a f f e c t s t h e s a l i e n t n o d a l p o i n t s & t h e a b i l i t y t o m o b i l i z e r e s o u r c e s. In t h e c o u r s e of t h e war. an SM, much l i k e a s t a t e. may u s e up a l l of its r e s o u r c e s.. o r through a l l i a n c e s g a i n added r e s o u r c e s. The war metaphor h a s s e v e r a l l i m i t a t i o n s. F i r s t , t h e metaphor i m p l i e s r e l a t i v e l y u n i f i e d a n t a g o n i s t s , y e t SMs a r e b e s t d e s c r i b e d i n terms of c o n g e r i e s of groups and M O s ( s i n c e wars a r e o f t e n f o u g h t by c o n l i t i o n s , t h i s is a m a t t e r of d e g r e e ). Second, t h e n a t u r e of t h e b a t t l e , t a c t i c s , and
r e s o u r c e s a r e q u i t e d i f f e r e n t i n war and i n s o c i a l movement. Wars^ always imply t h e u s e of p h y s i c a l c o e r c i o n ; some s o c i a l movements may b a t t l e o n l y w i t h p e r s u a s i v e t e c h n i q u e s. T h i r d ,^ t h e s t a t e may a c t^ a s a r b i t r a t o r^ and g u i d e where no t h i r d p a r t y c o n s t r a i n s wars, a t l e a s t n o t between major powers, Yet t h e a d v a n t a g e s of u s i n g t h e metaphor a r e q u i t e s t r i k i n g. At each p o i n t i n t i m e , i t s e t s a frame f o r weighing tlie a d v a n t a g e s and d i s a d v a n t a g e s f a c i n g each p a r t y t o t h e c o n f l i c t. Moreover, i t opens up s o c i a l movement a n a l y s i s t o t h e powerful a n a l y s i s of t a c t i c a and t a c i t b a r g a i n i n g stemming from game t h e o r y and a n a l y s i s of s t r a t e g i c b a r g a i n i n g ( S c h e l l i n g ). M o b i l i z a t i o n P r o c e s s e s Thinking a b o u t^ s o c i a l movement-countermovement i n t e r a c t i o n a s g r o u p s a t war h i g h l i g h t s an i m p o r t a n t p r o c e s s c e n t r a l t o any i n t e r - g r o u p c o n f l i c t ; m o b i l i z a t i o n of one p a r t h e i g h t e n s o r a f f e c t s t h e m o b i l i z a t i o n of o t h e r p a r t i e s. Two d e c a d e s ago, James S , Coleman (1957) published a l o n g paper on community c o n f l i c t. It h a s n o t heen s u p p l a n t e d and is d i r e c t l y r e l e v a n t t o o u r t a s k h e r e. Two a s p e c t s of h i s a n a l y s i s a r e e s p e c i a l l y i m p o r t a n t. F i r s t , t h e emergence of a c o n f l i c t i s s u e p o l a r i z e s o r i n c r e a s e s c l e a v a g e i n a community. Second, t h e m o b i l i z a t i o n of one s i d e i n a c o n f l i c t i s s u e c r e a t e s t h e c o n d i t i o n s f o r tlie m o b i l i z a t i o n of t h e o t h e r s i d e. How d o e s i t c r e a t e t h e c o n d i t i o n s f o r m o b i l i z a t i o n of t h e o p p o s i t i o n? F i r s t t h e SM t h r e a t e n v a l u e s , ( s a l i e n t i n t e r e s t s ) ; i t r a i s e s t h e p r o b a b i l i t y of l o s s , u n l e s s a c t i o n i s t a k e n , Second, t h e m o b i l i z a t i o n of a n SM-C-SMO~p r e s e n t s h a r p t h r e a t s around which t h e y c a n mount s p e c i f i c d e f e n s i v e a c t i o n ; t h a t is, t h e o c t i v i t i e s of t h e movement o r countermovement c r e a t e c l e a r l i n e s of a l t e r n a t i v e a c t i o n f o r t h e i r c o u n t e r p a r t. Often MOs and C-MOs can n o t m o b i l i z e because t h e i r program of a c t i v i t i e s is o n l y remotely r e l a t e d t o p e r c e i v e d chances of g o a l a t t a i n m e n t. But^ t h e c r e a t i o n o r m o b i l i z a t i o n^ of^ an a c t i v e movement s h a r p e n s t h e t h r e a t t o t h e l a t e n t countermovement.
The i d e a of a s p i r a l of c o n f l i c t o r i n c r e a s e d p o l a r i z a t i o n a s a c a u s e of m o b i l i z a t i o n i s a t t r a c t i v e , b u t t o o s i m p l e. F i r s t , we need t o have a b e t t e r u n d e r s t a n d i n g of t h e c o u n t e r p a r t p r o c e s s e s of d e - m o b i l i z a t i o n and d e - e s c a l a t i o n. They a r e n o t merely r e c i p r o c a l t o t h e m o b i l i z a t i o n p r o c e s s. NOS w i l l f i g h t f o r s u r v i v a l , o r g a n i z a t l o n a l s c h i s m s and mergers may t a k e p l a c e , t a c t i c a l changes o c c u r. Second, we need t o c o n s i d e r t h e p o s s i b i l i t y t h a t under some c o n d i t i o n s , m o b i l i z a t i o n of a movement o r coilntermovement d e c r e a s e s t h e m o b i l i z a t i o n of t h e o t h e r s i d e : sometimes m o b i l i z a t i o n of one s i d e i n c r e a s e s h o p e l e s s n e s s and d e s p a i r and i n t e r f e r e s w i t h e x p e c t a t l o n s of s u c c e s s , key e l e m e n t s of an i m p l i c i t risk-reward a n a l y s i s. F i n a l l y , tlie r o l e o f t h e mass media i n m o b i l i z a t i o n and d e m o b i l i z a t i o n must be b e t t e r understood. Do t h e y o p e r a t e a s s c o r e k e e p e r s , c s l l i n g and s i g n a l l i n g t r e n d s i n m o b i l i z a t i o n and d e m o b i l i z a t i o n? L o c a t i o n i n t h e S o c i a l S t r u c t u r e. J u s t^ a s n a t i o n n^ a t^ wor^ c a n be d e s c r i b e d i n terms of t h e i r g e o - p o l i t i c a l and economic r e s o u r c e s s o , t n o , c s n SMs and C-SM b e d e s c r i b e d by t h e i r l o c a t i o n and r e s o u r c e s i n t h e s o c i a l s t r u c t u r e. Movement and countermovement a r e d e s c r i b e d by: a ) t h e number and s o c i a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of a d h e r e n t s , b ) t h e number and k i n d s of MOa, c ) t h e t a c t i c s of M O s (which l i n k t o r e s o u r c e s ) , d ) i d e o l o g y , and 3) t h e e x p e c t a t i o n s of s u p p o r t e r s , S i n c e
s t r a t e g i c o p p o r t u n i t i e s v a r y. For i n s t a n c e , t h e a n t i - n u c l e a r power movement h a s c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s ofamassmovement, w h i l e t h e pro-nuclear power movement resembles more an i n s t i t u t i o n a l i z e d p r e s s u r e group w i t h one o r two peak
a march on Washington, w h i l e t h e o n t i - n u k e s have. On t h e o t h e r hand, t h e p r o s have enormous r e s o u r c e s of t e c h n o l o g i c a l e x p e r t i s e , f a r outweiglling t h e a n t i s.
Hypothesis 2. The r a n g e of a p p e a l s and t h e v a r i e t y of o r g a n i z a t i o n i s p a r t l y r e l a t e d (^) t o t h e h e t e r o g e n e i t y of p o t e n t i a l s u p p o r t e r s (p, 1 2 ) , Hypothesis 4. Assuming t h a t SMOs a r e competing f o r s i m i l a r a u d i e n c e s , a s SMOs w i t h i n a n i n d u s t r y become f u r t h e r a p a r t i n t h e i r concept of t h e amount of change and t h e t a c t i c s r e q u i r e d , r a n c o r o u s c o n f l i c t i n c r e a s e s ( p. 1 4 ).
extended c o o p e r a t i o n among SMOs w i t h i n t e r - d e p e n d e n t t a s k s p e c i a l i z a - t i o n s. t h a n among t h o s e which p u r s u e s i m i l a r g o a l s w i t h s i m i l a r t a c t - i c a l formulas. Hypothesis 8, The m o r e. t h e (board) i n t e r l o c k s , t h e g r e a t e r t h e coopera- t i o n among SMOs. I am persuaded by l o g i c and e m p i r i c a l c a s e s t h a t Zald and McCarthy a r e
what d e t e r m i n e s whether a i n d u s t r y is l o c a l l y based and fragmented o r h a s a more n a t i o n a l y o r i e n t e d f o c u s? 2) How d o e s a n MO dominate a MI? Local and N a t i o n a l S t r u c t u r e s I n o u r 1977 snd 1980 p a p e r s , we s l i d e r i g h t by a n i s s u e t h a t d e s e r v e s e x p l i c i t t r e a t m e n t. We nod i n t h e d i r e c t i o n of Gerlach and Hine (1970), b u t i n p r a c t i c e i g n o r e them. Because Gerlach and Hine f o c u s upon l o c a l i d e o l o g i c a l and s o l i d a r y groups and we were more i n t e r e s t e d i n t h e g a r n e r i n g of r e s o u r c e s and i n f l u e n c i n g a u t h o r i t i e s , no r e a l a t t e m p t h a s been made t o i n t e g r a t e t h e two. I n t e g r a t i o n o f t h e two p e r s p e c t i v e s may g i v e a c l u e t o t h e d e t e r m i n a n t s of i n d u s t r y s t r u c t r l r e. G e r l a c h and Hine d e s c r i b e t h e pentecostalmovement and t h e Black Power movement a s being s i m i l a r i n t h a t tliey a r e d e c e n t r a l i z e d , segmented, and r e t i c u l a t e d. D e c e n t r a l i z a t i o n r e f e r s t o t h e l o c a l autonomy of u n i t s i n msking d e c i s i o n s ; segmented r e f e r s t o t h e e x t e n t t o which u n i t s o f f e r s l i g h t l y d i f f e r e n t programs f o r members from d i f f e r e n t backgrounds; r e t i c u l a t e d r e f e r s t o t h e communication and l e a r n i n g t h a t o c c u r s between
u n i t s. I presume t h a t movements might a l s o be c e n t r a l i z e d and i n t e g r a t e d ,. A u n i f i e d r e v o l u t i o n a r y movement w i t h one encompassing SMO might be an example. Some movements, u s u a l l y t h o s e o f f e r i n g i n d i v i d u a l change, and s a l v a t i o n f i t t h e ' G e r l a c h and Hine model. (^) But a s i n g l e SMO i n a s a l v a t i o n - and i n d i v i d u a l l y - o r i e n t e d movement may p r o v i d e a c e n t r a l i z e d s t r u c t u r e of program and t a c t i c s. I assume t h e U n i f i c a t i o n Church of t h e Reverend Moon f i l l s t h e b i l l. As John Lofland ( i n Zald and & c a r t h y , 1979) a n a l y z e s t h e r e s o u r c e m o b i l i z a t i o n t e c h n i q u e s of a m i l l e n a r i a n s e c t , mushrooming on t h e n s t i o n a l s c e n e , i t resembles t h e a n a l y s i s of Zald and McCarthy much more t h a n (^) t h a t of Gerlach and Hine. S t i l l o t h e r movements combine t h e l o c a l i s t i c f e a t u r e s d e s c r i b e d by G e r l a c l ~and Hine a s w e l l a s multiple,natlonal.politically-oriented MOs. The modern f e m i n i i t movement f i t s t h i s d e s c r i p t i o n. (See J o ~ i e e m a ni n Zald and McCarthy, 1979). A way t o a n a l y z e t h i s v a r i e t y of s t r u c t u r e s may be found by u s i n g t h e economists concept of a i n d u s t r y s t r u c t u r e. Let me d e s c r i b e t h e components of i n d u s t r y s t r u c t u r e more e x p l i c i t l y. Economists d e s c r i b e s t r u c t u r e s l a r g e l y i n terms o f. t h e d e g r e e of c o n c e n t r a - t i o n o f f i r m s s e r v i n g a market. A fragmented i n d u s t r y h a s many f i r m s s e r v i n g a market; a c o n c e n t r a t e d o r m o n o p o l i s t i c i n d u s t r y h a s few f i r m s , o r o n l y one, s e r v i n g a market. I f t r a n s p o r t a t i o n c o s t s a r e high and l o c a l i n f o r m a t i o n i s a t a premium, a market may be s m a l l , l o c a l , and monopolized w i t h i n , y e t a t a n a t i o h a l o r g a n i z a t i o n a l l e v e l be l a r g e and fragmented ( t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n i n d u s t r y is t h e prime c u r r e n t example). T r a n s p o r t a t i o n c o s t s a r e high i n c o n s t r u c t i o n , because, i t would be d i f f l c u l t t o pool l a b o r
i n one o r j u s t a few assembly s i t e s o r t o move l a b o r t o and from j u s t a few o f f i c e s. I n d u s t r y s t r u c t u r e r e f e r s t o t h e number and d e g r e e of c o n c e n t r a t i o n of e s t a b l i s h m e n t s ( p l a n t s , p r o d u c t i v e u n i t s ) and e n t e r p r i s e s ( o r f i r m s ; t h a t is, l i n k e d e s t a b l i s h m e n t s ) ' i n an a c t u a l market. A n a l y s i s of s t r u c t u r e s examines both t h e d e g r e e of c o n c e n t r a t i o n and t h e c a u s e s of t h e d e g r e e of c o n c e n t r a t i o n ( f o r example, r e n t , b a r r i e r s t o e n t r y , economies of s c a l e , and t h e l i k e ). The s t r u c t u r e , o f an SMI is shaped by: 1 ) t h e amount of demand f o r its p r o d u c t s ; 2 ) t h e o r g a n i z a t i o n a l - t e c h n o l o g i c a l r e q u i r e m e n t s t o d e l i v e r i t s product; and 3) t h e amount of i d e o l o g i c a l and o r g a n i z a t i o n a l hegemony of t h e g o a l s l e a d i n g SMOs. "Products" o r g o a l s , a r e v a r i e d b u t may be e i t h e r i n d i v i d u a l o r c o l l e c t i v e. To t h e e x t e n t t h a t a movement o f f e r s i n d i v i d u a l s a t i s f a c t i o n and change, s o l i d a r i t y , and i n t e r p e r s o n a l s a t i s f a c t i o n s , it must have small u n i t s d e l i v e r i n g rewards a t t h e l o c a t i o n of p o t e n t i a l numbers. That is, SMOs cannot d e l i v e r s o l i d a r i t y through t h e m a i l s o r o v e r r a d i o o r N. The "product" e n t a i l s a l o c a l u n i t , To t h e e x t e n t t h a t a n SMO works a t changing n a t i o n a l o r s t a t e laws, i t must have u n i t s a g g r e g a t i n g demands and r e s o u r c e s and lobbying o r p r e s s i n g a t t h o s e l e v e l s ( c f. S a l s b u r y , 1968) An SMO with n a t i o n a l - l e v e l p o l i t i c a l g o a l s can do w i t h o u t l o c a l u n i t s. I t could c o l l e c t r e s o u r c e s and s u p p o r t from i s o l a t e d i n d i v i d u a l c o n s t i t u e n t s o r from major c e n t r a l i z e d f u n d i n g s o u r c e s and^ have a^ c e n t r a l i z e d^ l o b b y i n g and media development u n i t. An SMO o r i n d u s t r y p r e s s i n g f o r s t a t e a c t s must
1 A n n l y s t s sometimes b l u r t h e d i s t i n c t i o n between p l a n t s ( e s t a b l i s h m e n t s ) and f i r m s ( e n t e r p r i s e s ). They do do a t c o n s i d e r a b l e h a z a r d.
d e v e l o p s t a t e - l e v e l c o n s t i t u e n c i e s and v e h i c l e s f o r r e p r e s e n t i n g it.^2 Thus, a s movement g o a l s i n c l u d e b o t h p o l i t i c a l and i n d i v i d u a l a s p e c t s , we would e x p e c t a more complex n a t i o n a l and l o c a l s t r u c t u r e. Elsewhere (1977) we have argued how i n c r e a s e d market s i z e ( i n c r e a s e d demand) l e a d s t o t h e e n t r a n c e of new c o m p e t i t i o r s i n an i n d u s t r y. There a r e few b a r r i e r s t o e n t r y t o s o c i a l movement o r g a n i z a t i o n s : t h e major b a r r i e r seems t o be t h e n e c e s s i t y t o d i f f e r e n t i a t e p r o d u c t s - g o a l s o r t a c t i c s s u f f i -
amongst b u s i n e s s e s , c o m p e t i t i o n amongst SMOs i n a supposedly a l t r u i s t i c SMI r e q u i r e s j u s t i f i c a t i o n. ) So a s t h e movement grows s o w i l l t h e number of MOs i n t h e i n d u s t r y. But we have l i t t l e i n knowledge of how M I growth a t t h e n a t i o n a l l e v e l r e l a t e s t o M I growth a t t h e l o c a l l e v e l. 1.10 Domination of an I n d u s t r y
t h e problem i n t h e i r d i s c u s s i o n s of market s h a r e and l e a d e r s h i p i n c o n c e n t r a t e d i n d u s t r i e s. ( I n t e r e s t i n g l y , economists a r e b e t t e r a t d e s c r i b i n g t h e e f f e c t s of domination, t h a n t h e r e a s o n s a p a r t i c u l a r f i r m comes t o dominate. The l a t t e r i s s u e i s d i s c u s s e d by management t h e o r i s t s. ) What a r e t h e f a c t o r s t h a t l e a d a movement i n d u s t r y t o be monopolized o r dominated by one o r two MOs? Two answers have t r a d i t i o n a l l y been g i v e n , and t h e y a r e n ' t bad o n e s ; f o r^ s h o r t -
s u r v i v a l of t h e f i t t e s t. Charisma and Symbolic Hegemony. One p a t h t o i n d u s t r y domination is through t h e c a p t u r e of key symbols. The MO and i t s l e a d e r s a r t i c u l a t e t h e v i s i o n and t h e pathway o r program t o t h e v i s i o n t h a t seems t o g i v e t h e most
' ~ u c h of t h e l i t e r a t u r e of p o l i t i c e l s c i e n c e d e a l i n g w i t h s t a t e and r) n a t i o n a l p o l i t i c s and p r e s s u r e group f i t r u c t u r e may be r e l e v a n t t o t h e a n a l y s i s.
change. D e s c r i p t i v e l y , s e c t o r s d i f f e r i n t h e number of SMIs t h a t a r e a c t i v e , t h e amount of a c t i v i t y a c r o s s t h e i n d u s t r i e s , t h e e x t e n t of a r t i c u l a t i o n of SMIs w i t h e a c h o t h e r , and t h e i d e o l o g i c a l d i s t r i b u t i o n and dominant o r i e n t a - t i o n of t h e movements, (By i d e o l o g i c a l d i s t r i b u t i o n , (^) I mean t h e r a n g e of change g o a l s t h a t a r e a r t i c u l a t e d. F o r c r u d e , h e u r i s t i c p u r p o s e s , t h e d i s t r i - b u t i o n can be d e s c r i b e d on a l e f t - r i g h t continuum o r on t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n of extreme- moderate g o a l s and t a c t i c s ,) Two key i s s u e s a r e t h e a r t i c u l a t i o n of t h e s e c t o r w i t h t h e i n s t i t u t i o n - a l i z e d p o l i t i c a l s t r u c t u r e , and t h e a r t i c u l a t i o n of t h e s e c t o r w i t h t h e
h i s t o r i c a l l y grounded, it is i m p o r t a n t t o n o t e t h a t t h e dominant o r i e n t a t i o n of t h e s e c t o r changes o v e r time. The s e c t o r may be mainly concerned w i t h c l a s s and l a b o r i s s u e s i n one t i m e p e r i o d ; i n a n o t h e r i t may be dominated by i s s u e s of environment; i n a n o t h e r i t may be dominated by i s s u e s of p o l i t i c a l a c c e s s ; i n s t i l l a n o t h e r i t may be dominated by i s s u e s of l o c a l r e s i s t a n c e t o t h e spread of s t a t e power. As C h a r l e s T i l l y (1978) h a s s o f o r c e f u l l y (^) t a u g h t u s , tlie forms and d i r e c t i o n s of c o n t e n t i o n change o v e r time and must be r e l a t e d t o t h e changing i n f r a - s t r u c t u r e of s o c i e t y a s w e l l a s t o p o l i t i c a l c h o i c e. (^) A s o l d SMIs win b a t t l e s and d i s a p p e a r o r a r e i n s t i t u t i o n a l i z e d , new i n d u s t r i e s develop r e s p o n s i b i l i t y t o changing o p p o r t u n i t i e s and developments. New SMIs draw upon t h e changing c l e a v a g e s and i s s u e s of s o c i e t y and upon t h e p o t e n t i a l s f o r m o b i l i z a t i o n. Our a n a l y s i s of v a r i e t y i n t h e s o c i a l movement s e c t o r draws upon t h r e e major l i n e s of a n a l y s i s. F i r s t , it assumes t h e r e s o u r c e m o b i l i z a t i o n per- s p e c t i v e. Second, i t u s e s a modern Marxian a n a l y s i s of t h e c l a s s system and t h e changing economic system t o a c c o u n t f o r b o t h t h e dominating o r i e n t a t i o n
of SMIs and t h e s y s t e m i c c r i s e s t h a t breed p e r i o d s of h i g h and low a c t i v i t i e s. T h i r d , i t t r e a t s t h e s t r u c t u r e of p o l i t i c a l s y s t e m s a s a major d e t e r m i n a n t of s o c i a l movement s e c t o r s. I n p a r t i c u l a r , i t examines: 1 ) t h e e x t e n t t o which p a r t i e s and i n s t i t u t i o n s a r t i c u l a t e w i t h t h e r a n g e of s o c i a l c l a s s e s and g r o u p s i n s o c i e t y ; 2) t h e e x t e n t t o whicli t h e p o l i t i c a l p a r t i e s and i n s t i t u - t i o n s f u n n e l o r a g g r e g a t e change p r e f e r e n c e s ; and 3) t h e e x t e n t t o which t h e p o l i t i c a l system d i s c o u r a g e s ( r e p r e s s e s ) n o n - i n s t i t u t i o n a l t z e d a c t i v i t i e s. We draw upon t h e work of p o l i t i c a l s o c i o l o g i s t s and p o l i t i c a l s c i e n t i s t s such a s Duverger, Rokkan, Rose, Dahl, and L i p s e t , a s w e l l a s upon c l a s s a n a l y s t s such a s Abendroth, Hobsbam, and Thompson. I am n o t prepared a t t h i s ttme of o f f e r a s y s t e m a t i c s e t of p r o p o s i t t o n s i n which some a s p e c t of t h e SM s e c t o r is s e e n a s dependent o r caused by some a s p e c t of p o l i t i c a l o r c l a s s s t r u c t u r e. But some i l l u s t r a t i v e p r o p o s i t i o n s and o b s e r v a t i o n s a r e i n o r d e r. 1 ) The s i z e and r a n p e of i s s u e s i n t h e SMs i s i n v e r s e l y r e l a t e d t o tlie c o s t s of m o b i l i z i n g. Where s o c i a l c o n t r o l and r e p r e s s i o n i s high and s y s t e m a t i c and d e s c r e t i o n a r y economic r e s o u r c e s a r e low, s o c i a l movement s c t i v j t y w i l l b e low.
a r e omnibus v e h i c l e s , o r because they excludcd groups. E v e r y t h i n g e l s e b e i n g e q u a l , a s o c i a l movement s e c t o r s e p a r a t e from t h e e s t a b l i s h e d p o l i t i c a l p a r t i e s i s a more c o s t l y method of a c h i e v i n g change.
r e p r e s e n t g r o u p s ' i n t e r e s t s.
s t a g e s of economic and p o l i t i c a l development. When t h e emerging n a t i o n s t a t e s a t t e m p t e d t o extend t h e i r power and c o n t r o l o v e r l o c a l economies and popula- t i o n s , t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c r e b e l l i o n of t h e s i x t e e n t h and s e v e n t e e n t h c e n t u r i e s was t h e t a x r e b e l l i o n. Although t a x e s c o n t i n u e t o p r o v i d e g r i s t f o r p o l i t i c a l and s o c i a l movement a c t i o n s , t h e t a x r e b e l l i o n , w i t h l o c a l communities o r
r e g i o n s u s i n g v i o l e n t t a c t i c s a s a s o u r c e of r e s i s t a n c e , h a s d i s a p p e a r e d. A t a l a t e r s t a g e. o f c a p i t a l i s t economic development, i s s u e s of p o l i t i c a l and o r g a n i z a t i o n a l r i g h t s f o r t h e lower c l a s s e s and t h e n of economic s e c u r i t y and working c o n d i t i o n s become dominant i s s u e s. As.new i s s u e s s u r f a c e , t h e o l d i n s t i t u t i o n a l i z e d s o l u t i o n n become i n a d e q u a t e f o r a r t i c u l a t i n g problems and g r i e v a n c e s , and t h e o r i e n t a t i o n of t h e s o c i a l movement s e c t o r changes. I n o u r own t i m e ; t h e l e f t - r i g h t i d e o l o g y of t h e c l a s s - o r i e n t e d p o l i t i c a l s o l u t i o n i s l a r g e l y i r r e l e v a n t t o t h e new i s s u e s of t h e p o s t - i n d u s t r i a l s o c i e t y - - i s s u e s of t h e c o n t r o l of n u c l e a r power, p o l l u t i o n , a l t e r n a t i v e l i f e s t y l e s , and a b o r t i o n have l i t t l e r e l a t i o n t o t h e major c l a s s i s s u e s and p o l i t i c a l forms t h a t dominated t h e e a r l y p a r t of t h e c e n t u r y. Not t h a t t h e y d o n ' t a r t i c u l a t e w i t h t h e i n t e r e s t s of g r o u p s w i t h s p e c i f i c s o c i a l l o c a t i o n s. Indeed t h e y do. But they do n o t a r t i c u l a t e w i t h t h e c o n s t e l l a t i o n of groups and i n s t i t u t i o n a l i z e d c h a n n e l s t h a t r e p r e - s e n t t h e. p o l i t i c a 1 s o l u t i o n oE t h e i n d u s t r i a l r e v o l u t i o n. T h i s d i s s r t i c u l a - t i o n r e p r e s e n t s t h e o p p o r t u n i t y f o r whole new s o c i a l movement i n d u s t r i e s t o grow. Of^ c o u r s e ,^ t h e c u r r e n t^ p a r t y^ system^ is^ p a r t l y^ an outcome of^ e a r l i e r s o c i a l movements, a s c h a l l e n g e r s t o t h e p o l i t y became members of t h e p o l i t y.
n a t i o n a l f o r c e s. The h i s t o r y of major p a r t i e s found i n European c o u n t r i e s - - t h e C h r i s t i a n d e m o c r s t s , t h e s o c i a l i s t s , and t h e communist p a r t i e s - - c a n n o t be w r i t t e n w i t h o u t major a t t e n t i o n t o t h e i n t e r n a t i o n a l p o l i t i c a l s c e n e nor t o t h e s p e c i f i c f a t e of c o u n t e r p a r t p a r t i e s i n o t h e r c o u n t r i e s. S i m i l a r l y. t h e c u r r e n t I s l a m i c r e v i v a l i n I r a n must b e s e e n i n conjunc- t i o n w i t h I s l a m i c fundamentalism throughout t h e broad sweep of m i d d l e e a s t e r n and f a r e a s t e r n c o u n t r i e s. Thus^ t h e^ s t r u c t u r e of^ t h e^ s e c t o r and^ i t s o r i e n t a t i o n i s p a r t l y a r e s p o n s e t o i n t e r n a t i o n a l i d e o l o g i c a l t r e n d s , t o
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