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Logical Fallacies: Understanding and Identifying Common Errors in Reasoning - Prof. Robert, Study notes of Grammar and Composition

An overview of common logical fallacies, including ad hominem, appeal to tradition, argument from ignorance, bandwagon, begging the question, equivocation, false analogy, false authority, false cause, false dilemma, guilt by association, hasty generalization, non sequitur, oversimplification, red herring, slippery slope, and straw man. Each fallacy is explained with examples to help readers recognize and avoid making these errors in their own reasoning.

Typology: Study notes

Pre 2010

Uploaded on 08/19/2009

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LOGICAL FALLACIES
1. Ad hominem—attacking an individual rather than his or her position.
This person is unfit to be president because he used marijuana and cocaine while in
college.
2. Appeal to tradition—stating that something should be done in a certain way because it
has always been done that way.
Gay marriage should not be allowed because it has never been recognized by any
civilization.
3. Argument from ignorance—reasoning that something is true or false from lack of
evidence to the contrary.
No evidence shows that alien abductions do not exist. Therefore, people have been
abducted by aliens. (With all the attendant unpleasantness!)
4. Bandwagon—using popularity as the only support.
Ford’s F-150 is the most popular model of pick-up truck; therefore, you should buy one.
5. Begging the question—assuming what needs to be proven.
18-year-olds vote Republican. (This statement assumes that 18-year-olds, as a group, do
indeed vote—a dubious assertion.) Note: the term “begging the question” also refers to
circular reasoning, for instance: Women are not fit to be priests because a priest’s job is
appropriate only for men.
6. Equivocation—making an assertion that falsely relies on using a term in two separate
ways.
Anyone with grass in his possession violates U.S. drug laws; because Bill Clinton’s
White House was surrounded by grass, he was even then violating our country’s drug
laws.
7. False analogy—the assumption that because two things are alike in some ways, they
must be alike in others.
The government is enacting laws that will severely restrict commercial fishermen. The
government should just let the fishermen do their job—after all, fishermen are the
farmers of the oceans.
8. False authority—citing a source that has no real validity in the area one is discussing.
Tom Cruise is just the latest person to point out the problems with modern
psychotherapy’s use of drugs.
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LOGICAL FALLACIES

  1. Ad hominem —attacking an individual rather than his or her position. This person is unfit to be president because he used marijuana and cocaine while in college.
  2. Appeal to tradition —stating that something should be done in a certain way because it has always been done that way. Gay marriage should not be allowed because it has never been recognized by any civilization.
  3. Argument from ignorance —reasoning that something is true or false from lack of evidence to the contrary. No evidence shows that alien abductions do not exist. Therefore, people have beenabducted by aliens. (With all the attendant unpleasantness!)
  4. Bandwagon —using popularity as the only support. Ford’s F-150 is the most popular model of pick-up truck; therefore, you should buy one.
  5. Begging the question —assuming what needs to be proven. 18-year-olds vote Republican. (This statement assumes that 18-year-olds, as a group, doindeed vote—a dubious assertion.) Note: the term “begging the question” also refers to circular reasoning, for instance: Women are not fit to be priests because a priest’s job is appropriate only for men.
  6. Equivocation —making an assertion that falsely relies on using a term in two separate ways. Anyone with grass in his possession violates U.S. drug laws; because Bill Clinton’sWhite House was surrounded by grass, he was even then violating our country’s drug laws.
  7. False analogy —the assumption that because two things are alike in some ways, they must be alike in others. The government is enacting laws that will severely restrict commercial fishermen. The government should just let the fishermen do their job—after all, fishermen are the farmers of the oceans.
  8. False authority —citing a source that has no real validity in the area one is discussing. Tom Cruise is just the latest person to point out the problems with modern psychotherapy’s use of drugs.
  1. False cause —the post hoc ergo propter hoc error, arguing that because one thing preceded an event, it caused the event. I take vitamin C everyday, and I never catch a cold—therefore, this cheap preventive measure is all you need to keep yourself healthy.
  2. False dilemma (either/or)—stating that only two options exist when more, in fact, do. We have two choices in Iraq—either cut and run or stay the course.
  3. Guilt by association — unfairly making someone responsible for the beliefs of others. Don’t reelect Representative Jim Smith; because he is a Democrat—even though he is from this area—he will be working with those liberals from New York and San Franciscoto threaten our values. (Notice also the fallacy of “begging the question.”)
  4. Hasty generalization —the stereotype. Old people are bad drivers.
  5. Non Sequitur connection, but no logical one.—“It does not follow”; making two statements that have in implied

Mike is very honest; therefore, he will get a good job.

  1. Oversimplification than a single cause or solution for a complex problem.—leaving out of consideration anything that implies there is other

All we have to do is bomb Iran’s nuclear reactor sites and that will eliminate theircapability to attack U.S. interests.

  1. Red herring —dodging an arguable point by bringing up an irrelevant issue. Why should we worry about stopping terrorists overseas when we haven’t even managedto secure our own ports from attack?
  2. Slippery slope —assuming that one thing will inevitably cause another. Handgun control is the first step down a road that will lead to the U.S. becoming a dictatorship.
  3. Straw man —the mischaracterization of something in order to make it easy to refute. The Democrats cannot wait to raise your taxes—why would any working person vote for a Democrat? Adapted from Hodges’ Harbrace College Handbook 10 th^ and 14th^ Editions , John C. Hodges, et al, and Logic and Mr. Limbaugh , Ray Perkins, Jr., Open Court, 1995