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The byzantine empire, which emerged from the greek village of byzantion, survived and thrived in the eastern mediterranean world for over a millennium after the fall of the western roman empire. The political, economic, and social developments of the byzantine empire, its influence on european culture, and its eventual decline.
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A series of problems, including political and social turmoil as well as military threats from outside forces, brought an end to the classical societies in the centuries after 200 C.E. The lone exception was the Byzantine empire. After the collapse of the western half of the Roman empire the Byzantine eastern section survived for another millennium. The Byzantine empire developed into a dramatically different society than its Roman predecessor was. Far more than merely surviving, however, Byzantium dominated the eastern Mediterranean world politically and economically for centuries. Even after its collapse the Byzantine empire’s influence could be seen in the Slavic peoples of eastern Europe and Russia. The Early Byzantine Empire Byzantium began as the Greek village of Byzantion, a small trading town important only for its strategic position on the Bosporus. Eventually Constantine chose Byzantion, renamed Constantinople, to be the capital of the Roman empire because of its position as the center of the wealthy eastern half of the empire. At its height Byzantium would include Greece, Anatolia, Syria, Palestine, Egypt, northeast Africa, and the Balkans. Byzantium faced threats from the Sasanid dynasty in Persia but managed to escape the Germanic invasions that had devastated the western half of the empire. Politically, the Byzantine state was marked by a highly centralized rule centered around a remarkably powerful emperor. Byzantine emperors wielded a mixture of political and religious authority known as caesaropapism. At least in theory, the emperor possessed absolute authority in all political, military, judicial, and religious affairs. Justinian, despite humble origins, would be the most influential of the Byzantine emperors. Ably advised by his wife Theodora, Justinian attempted to re-create the Roman empire. Hagia Sophia is representative of the brilliant building program started by Justinian to reconfigure Constantinople. Justinian’s codification of Roman law, as seen in the Corpus iuris civilis , was the emperor’s most influential legal and political contribution. The general Belisarius’s conquests reconstructed most of the Roman empire. In the end, however, a combination of limited Byzantine resources and Arabic expansion made holding the old empire together impossible. Nevertheless, the theme system allowed for a temporary reinvigoration under Basil II in the early eleventh century. The former western half of the empire increasingly fell to successor states. The Frankish king Charlemagne received an imperial crown from the pope in 800 and Otto of Saxony claimed to rule the west in 962. Byzantine Economy and Society While its political authority fluctuated over the centuries, Byzantium continually remained an economic power. Anatolia and the area around the lower Danube produced enormous supplies of wheat. Byzantium was at its strongest when free peasants formed the engine that drove the state. The position of the free peasants was bolstered by the theme system that provided land in return for military service. The consolidation of power and land in the hands of the nobles not only hurt the peasants but also damaged the Byzantine empire militarily. Constantinople remained the major center of trade and industry in the Mediterranean world. One of the major innovations was the rise of a silk industry. Byzantium’s domination over trade is
probably best shown by the fact that the bezant became the standard currency in the Mediterranean for centuries. Constantinople—the largest city in Europe, with a population of around one million—stood in the center of everything and was a worthy successor to Rome as “the city” of the Mediterranean basin. Classical Heritage and Orthodox Christianity Despite its early connection to Rome, Byzantium was most strongly influenced by Greek culture. Greek became the official language. Philosophy was shaped profoundly by Greek thought. Byzantine education clearly showed the Greek influence, and a state-supported school system provided for widespread literacy. A school for the study of law, medicine, and philosophy in Constantinople survived for a thousand years. The differences between the western and eastern halves of the empire are probably most obvious in ecclesiastical matters. The Byzantine emperors played a very active role in religious issues, as seen in Constantine calling together the Council of Nicaea to attack Arian views on the nature of Jesus. The patriarchs of Constantinople were chosen by the emperor and remained firmly under imperial control. Leo III’s iconoclasm is a classic example of imperial meddling in religious affairs. Monasticism, shaped by the rule of St. Basil, grew rapidly during the Byzantine age. Byzantine monasteries were known less for their scholarly contributions than for their spiritual and social aid to their communities. Tensions over issues ranging from doctrine to power led to the patriarch and pope mutually excommunicating each other in 1054, the date still accepted for the beginning of the schism between the Eastern Orthodox and Roman Catholic churches. The Influence of Byzantium in Eastern Europe Byzantine power was threatened by internal social problems as well as challenges from the west and east. The sacking of Constantinople by the Fourth Crusade in 1204 devastated Byzantium and only increased tensions between the old halves of the Roman empire. The victory of the Saljuq Turks at Manzikert in 1071 eventually led to the loss of Anatolia and economic devastation. After centuries of decay Constantinople fell to the Ottoman Turks in