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Lecture 7 Notes for Political Science Class, Study notes of History

Just some history notes for chapter 7

Typology: Study notes

2020/2021

Uploaded on 04/01/2023

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Lecture 7: Race and Ethnicity
Race and ethnicity
oIn this lecture we investigate the sociology of race and ethnicity by examining
differences between dominant and subordinate groups
theoretical perspectives on race
prejudice and discrimination
aesthetics and race and ethnicity
the sociology of race and ethnicity
oThe sociology of race and ethnicity begins with an understanding that all societies
are characterized by members having unequal wealth, prestige, and power.
oSociologists have observed that entire groups have more or less of what a society
values (groups associated with race, class, gender).
oSociology uses terms you may be familiar with in very specific ways:
Majority represents those who are dominant.
Minority represents those who are subordinate.
minority and subordinate groups
oFive characteristics define minority/subordinate groups:
1. Unequal treatment and less power over one’s life.
2. Distinguishing physical or cultural traits that the dominant group holds
in low regard.
3. Involuntary membership or ascribed status.
4. Group solidarity and awareness of subordinate status and oppression.
5. Marital endogamy (patterns of in-group marriage).
Theoretical perspectives on race
oThree main sociological perspectives can be used to understand race:
1. The functionalist perspective
2. The conflict perspective
3. The labeling approach (symbolic int.)
Theoretical perspectives on race: the functionalist perspective
o functionalist perspective emphasizes how parts of society are structured to
maintain its stability.
oFunctions that racial beliefs have for dominant groups include:
1. Racist ideologies provide justification for unequal treatment
functions of racial beliefs
2. Racial ideologies discourage subordinate people from attempting to
question their low status.
3. Racial ideologies justify existing practices but also serve as a rallying
point for social movements
4. Racist beliefs provide support for the existing social order.
5. Racial ideologies perpetuate economic and educational problems of
subordinate groups.
dysfunctions of racial beliefs
oDysfunctions that racial beliefs have for dominant groups include:
1. Racial beliefs fail to utilize human potential and limit the search for
talent and leadership to benefit the dominant group.
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Lecture 7: Race and Ethnicity  Race and ethnicity o In this lecture we investigate the sociology of race and ethnicity by examining  differences between dominant and subordinate groups  theoretical perspectives on race  prejudice and discrimination  aesthetics and race and ethnicity  the sociology of race and ethnicity o The sociology of race and ethnicity begins with an understanding that all societies are characterized by members having unequal wealth, prestige, and power. o Sociologists have observed that entire groups have more or less of what a society values (groups associated with race, class, gender). o Sociology uses terms you may be familiar with in very specific ways:  Majority represents those who are dominant.  Minority represents those who are subordinate.  minority and subordinate groups o Five characteristics define minority/subordinate groups:  1. Unequal treatment and less power over one’s life.  2. Distinguishing physical or cultural traits that the dominant group holds in low regard.  3. Involuntary membership or ascribed status.  4. Group solidarity and awareness of subordinate status and oppression.  5. Marital endogamy (patterns of in-group marriage).  Theoretical perspectives on race o Three main sociological perspectives can be used to understand race:  1. The functionalist perspective  2. The conflict perspective  3. The labeling approach (symbolic int.)  Theoretical perspectives on race: the functionalist perspective o functionalist perspective emphasizes how parts of society are structured to maintain its stability. o Functions that racial beliefs have for dominant groups include:  1. Racist ideologies provide justification for unequal treatment  functions of racial beliefs  2. Racial ideologies discourage subordinate people from attempting to question their low status.  3. Racial ideologies justify existing practices but also serve as a rallying point for social movements  4. Racist beliefs provide support for the existing social order.  5. Racial ideologies perpetuate economic and educational problems of subordinate groups.  dysfunctions of racial beliefs o Dysfunctions that racial beliefs have for dominant groups include:  1. Racial beliefs fail to utilize human potential and limit the search for talent and leadership to benefit the dominant group.

 2. Racial beliefs aggravate social problems and create a financial burden of alleviating problems on the dominant group.  3. Racial beliefs increase the investment of time and money to defend barriers that prevent full participation of all.  4. Racial beliefs undermine diplomatic ties between nations and affect efforts to increase global trade.  5. Racial beliefs inhibit social change.  6. Racial beliefs promote disrespect for law enforcement and the peaceful settlements of disputes.  theoretical perspectives on race : the conflict perspective o The conflict perspective assumes that society is best understood in terms of conflict or tension between competing groups.  According to the conflict perspective, competition takes place between groups with unequal amounts of economic or political power.  theoretical perspectives on race : the labeling approach o The labeling approach is an attempt to explain why certain people are viewed as deviant and why others who engage in the same behavior are not.  Labeling theory shows how dominant group definitions are self-fulfilling prophecies that have real consequences for subordinate groups.  does race matter? o Race is commonly understood in two ways:  1. Biological meaning of race  Biologically there are no pure, distinct races.  2. Social construction of race  Race is important because of the social meaning people have attached to it. Racism is a doctrine that one race is superior.  biological determinism o Biological determinism asserts that races are distinct and separate for biological and genetic reasons.  These arguments have often been used to justify injustices and naturalize inequalities, yet there is no scientific support for them.  Biological determinism is bad science  genetics and race o Some believe there are different biological “races,” but genetics reveals this is not so. ▪ We share 99.9% of the same genes with other human beings.  There is more genetic variation within racial groups than between them.  Racial difference does not exist on the genetic level!  race as a social reality o Race is a symbolic category, based on phenotype or ancestry and constructed according to specific social and historical contexts.  Race is usually misrecognized as a natural category.  Phenotype o A person’s phenotype is his or her physical appearance and constitution, including skeletal structure, height, hair texture, eye color, and skin tone.  The symbolic category of race often uses phenotype to organize people into bounded groupings

 Most Americans believe TRIPLE the amount of Blacks, Asians, and Hispanics exist in the population than really do  overestimations of minority groups why do people overestimate minority groups? o Why do people over-estimate the nonwhite population? o What does this mean sociologically? o Typical explanations include:  1. “Because I grew up in an all-Black or allLatino neighborhood.”  One’s individual, subjective experience is often different from the objective reality  2. “Because I am young and we are more diverse as a group than old people.”  A decent point; more diversity exists among the young than the old.  However, older people also hugely overestimate the non-white population (just like young people).  3. “There is a lot of media coverage of nonwhites on the news, in music videos, in sports—on TV and in films.”  The media often tells us the country is becoming more diverse, but there are many differences between the media’s portrayal of race and what is actually taking place in society  the five fallacies of race o There are five fallacies regarding race:  1. Individualistic fallacy  2. Legalistic fallacy  3. Tokenistic fallacy  4. Ahistorical fallacy  5. Fixed fallacy  1. Individualistic fallacy o The individualistic fallacy represents the idea that racism is assumed to belong to the realm of ideas and prejudices.  Racism is not always intentional; it exists in our habits and social institutions.  Labeling someone a racist treats racism as something aberrant and strange, whereas American racism is quite normal  2. Legalistic fallacy o The legalistic fallacy assumes that abolishing racist laws effectively abolishes racism.  E.g. laws against car theft do not ensure that your car won’t get stolen.  Brown vs. Board of Education abolished de jure segregation in schools, but schools remain relatively segregated (with some indications of a resurgence in school segregation).  3. Tokenistic fallacy o The tokenistic fallacy assumes that the presence of people of color in influential positions is evidence that racism no longer exists.  E.g. how can the financial success of Oprah Winfrey coexist with the economic deprivation of millions of black women?

 4. A historical fallacy o The ahistorical fallacy assumes history is inconsequential to race.  However, all that is socially constructed is historically constructed.  The United States is only 200 years old; all of American history is recent history  5. Fixed fallacy o The fixed fallacy assumes racism is fixed and constant across time and space.  However, racism is always morphing; it is unquantifiable.  One cannot conclude that racism has disappeared just because it doesn’t resemble that of the 1950s.  the reality of race and contemporary America o Reasons to be optimistic about the current state of race in America:  1. Legally enforced racism no longer exists.  2. America continues to implement forms of institutional integration, and diversity is seen as an asset.  3. Examples of successful people of color have set a high standard for potential success (e.g. Barack Obama).  4. Today’s youth are much more open minded than were past generations.  reasons to be optimistic about the current state of race in America o Reasons why race continues to be an issue in America:  1. Hate crimes  2. Employment inequalities  3. Poverty  4. Incarceration disparities  disturbing trends regarding race o Hate crimes  Annually, more than 5,000 hate crimes are reported by the FBI.  Over half these crimes are motivated by racial hatred.  This represents only those hate crimes that are reported o Employment inequalities  In recent Bureau of Labor Statistics data, 4% of Whites, 3% of Asians, 6% of Hispanics, and 8% of Blacks were unemployed.  Since 1940, the unemployment rate of Blacks has been nearly twice that of Whites.  Over half of Native Americans on some reservations are unemployed.  percent of major racial groups living in poverty

 discrimination in job seeking  discrimination in the workplace o The following are institutionalized forms of discrimination, common in organizations and in the workplace:  1. Glass ceiling  2. Glass walls  3. Glass escalator o 1. Glass ceiling

 The glass ceiling is a metaphor for the invisible barrier that blocks the promotion of a qualified worker because of gender or minority membership.  Women and minority promotion in organizations often stops at a certain point, while the dominant group (White males) often continues to be promoted. o 2. Glass walls  Glass walls are metaphorical barriers that keep minorities or women from moving laterally within an organization.  It is more likely for the dominant group in an organization to move from position to position as compared to women and minorities. o 3. Glass escalator  The glass escalator is a metaphorical term representing male advantages for promotion over similarly qualified women or minority workers.  In organizations, White males are often put on a fast-track for promotion and are thus promoted more quickly and more often than women or minorities  glass ceilings, walls, and escalators  attitudes and behavior : prejudice and discrimination o Do attitudes predict behavior, i.e. does being prejudiced predict if one will discriminate?  Yes and no! o Attitudes can motivate behavior:  E.g. if a person thinks American cars are better than foreign cars, they may be more likely to buy an American car. o Attitudes may not motivate behavior:

 measuring prejudice o Emory Bogardus (1882-1973) developed an empirical measure of prejudice, often referred to as the Bogardus social distance scale.  The scale asks people how willing they would be to interact with various racial and ethnic groups in specified social situations  the Bogardus social distance scale o Differences in intensity on the social distance scale suggest a structure among items.  Logically, once a person changes their answer on a BSDS scale, their answers will remain changed (i.e. when one changes from “yes” to “no” they will not answer “yes” to any additional items on the BSDS). o EXAMPLE: BSDS for the acceptance of African Americans:  1. Are you willing to permit African Americans to live in your own country?  2. Are you willing to permit African Americans to live in your community?  3. Are you willing to permit African Americans to live in your neighborhood?  4. Are you willing to let an African Americans live next door to you?  5. Would you let your child marry an African American?  aesthetics of race and ethnicity o Aestheticsis the branch of philosophy that examines beauty, art, and taste.  Aesthetics often refers to fine art, with a view to establishing the meaning and validity of critical judgments concerning works of art, and the principles underlying or justifying such judgments.  Art is not valued objectively; intersections of race, class, and gender greatly determine one’s impression of art.

 aesthetics as a mechanism of distinction o Aesthetic choices can be used to signal and enforce social differences, creating an “us” vs. “them” dynamic via art.  Consider the cost of attending the theater vs. attending a movie theater: access to art differs by social class.  Consider the role of fashion or style in signaling class divisions.  white aesthetics o The American aesthetic in many ways has been a White aesthetic historically.  The White aesthetic is a monopoly over dominant images of beauty, genius, and art.  The White aesthetic is a default category, representing a universal standard of beauty and taste. o An example of White dominated aesthetics is provided by this portrayal of Cleopatra in white marble. o In art, Whiteness is often equated with “goodness” and beauty.  aesthetics in television and movies o Many TV shows that feature a subordinate group often directly deal with issues of their minority status, whereas TV shows that feature the dominant class do not directly address their dominant status.

Lecture 8: Sex and Gender  Sex and gender o In this lecture we examine sex and gender by discussing…  Differences between sex and gender  Gender socialization  Gender stratification o Sex refers to biological characteristics that distinguish males from females.   Gender refers to social characteristics a society considers proper for males and females.  Sex is usually a binary variable (male/female); gender as a variable ranges from extremely masculine to extremely feminine.  We inherit our sex; we learn our gender  reasons for gender differences o Some argue that biological factors cause men to be aggressive and domineering, and women to be comforting and nurturing.  If biology was the primary factor in human behavior, then women the world over would all behave the same way (as would men).  The biological argument is dubious, because gender meanings and behaviors vary greatly from one culture to another  is biology more important for gender than sociologists are willing to admit? o Two examples support the idea that biology determines gender:  1. A medical accident led to a young boy being reassigned to the female sex.  Reared as a female, the child behaved like a girl; however, by adolescence she was unhappy and having a difficult time adjusting to being a female.

o Example of “Dick and Jane” readers: male socialization.  gender roles o Gender roles are diffuse and define most of our interactions with others. o Barrie Thorne studied gender meanings among elementary school children, finding that gender identity is socially constructed in the way boys and girls tease, gossip, and play at school  gender roles : border work o Thorne coined the term borderwork, which represents the way contact between males and females strengthens each group’s sense of separateness.  Thorne believed people seek access to or avoid particular activities depending on how they are gendered:  Gender is an “oppositional dualism.”  Gender differences are exaggerated; the presence of variation and sources of commonality are disregarded  gender and peer groups at school

o Patricia and Peter Adler (1998) discovered how boys and girls socialize themselves differently at school:  Boys and girls separate themselves by sex; each sex develops unique norms.  Boys and girls often have opposite value systems and standards for behavior. o An example of gender differentiation at school: sex and popularity  For boys, athletic ability, coolness, and toughness is valued.  Doing poorly academically increases popularity.  For girls, family background, physical appearance, and the ability to attract popular boys is valued.  Doing poorly academically decreases popularity  gender and sports o Sports are powerful socializing agents regarding gender.  Boys often learn that masculinity is related to achievement in sports.  The more a male is successful at sports, the more masculine he is determined to be, and the more accepted he is by his peers  gender, sports, and media o Mass media tends to blend sexuality and sports much more for women than men.  Many of the top female sports stars are presented as sex symbols in advertising; such images can have a lasting effect on gender socialization o Michael Messner’s research shows that because sports involve instrumental (goal oriented) tasks, they influence boys to develop instrumental relationships (relationships based on what one can get out of them).  Boys relate instrumentally to girls.  Girls are socialized to construct relationships around meaning rather than instrumental goals 

 Tag questions can be the result of a lack of confidence in the speaker—a desire to avoid commitment to a statement or position.  E.g. “Sociology is a hard subject, isn’t it?” o Relative status affects the use of tag questions:  Men use tag questions more when in social settings where their status is nullified  (e.g. a man completing a gendered task with a woman, such as changing a diaper/taking care of a baby)  language and gender : hedges o Women tend to use more hedges in their conversations (men use fewer hedges):  “Maybe this is a good restaurant.”  “I guess I’ll have the halibut.”  “Perhaps we should leave.”  language and gender : intensifiers o Women tend to use more intensifiers in their conversations (men use fewer intensifiers):  “This necklace is really pretty!”  “This cake is so yummy.”  language and gender : backchanneling o Back-channel feedback is small vocal comments a listener makes while a speaker is talking.  Women use less intrusive responses than men to indicate agreement or attention, preferring head nods (“mm-hmm”) rather than more assertive comments (“yeah” or “right”).  Women generally back-channel more than men.  language and gender : disclaimers o Disclaimers are qualifying statements used to protect one’s self-concept in situations where one does not want to look bad.  Women tend to use disclaimers more than men:  “I may be wrong, but that was a great movie.”  “Others may disagree, but I think he is a good candidate.”  Language and gender: non verbal communication o Gender differences in non-verbal communication include:  Men signal dominance through staring, pointing, walking ahead of women they are with.  Women are more likely to smile, lower their gaze, move out of a man’s way when passing. o Non-verbal communication is more a function of status than gender, in the pure sense:  Men in subordinate positions to women act as women toward men in neutral settings (lower gaze, etc.).  gender stratification o Gender stratification refers to men’s and women’s unequal access to power, prestige, and property.  Gender is a master status, and is a salient characteristic in all aspects of social life.

 The sociological significance of gender is that it is a major means by which society controlsits members; it sorts men and women into different life experiences.  gender inequality in the United states o Until the 20th century, women in the U.S. did not have the right to vote, hold property, make legal contracts, or serve on a jury.  Political rights for women resulted from a prolonged and bitter struggle waged by a “first wave” of feminists in the 19th and early 20th centuries.  feminism o Feminist movements of the past had different emphases:  1. Radical feminism aimed to reform all social institutions  2. Conservative feminism concentrated on allowing women to vote.  After 1920 and the achievement of suffrage for women, this movement dissolved. o A “second wave” of feminism began in the 1960s.  As more women gained an education and began to work outside the home, they compared their wages and working conditions to those of men. o The following are goals that define contemporary feminist movements:  1. To seek equality for women in all areas of social life.  2. To increase opportunities and choices for women.  3. To eliminate gender stratification.  4. To end sexual violence.  5. To promote sexual freedom. o Today there are three main types of feminism:  1. Liberal feminism  Liberal feminists seek basic gender equalities (such as equal pay in the workplace, equal rights), while still respecting role differentiation for women vs. men  2. Radical feminism  Radical feminists seek to completely restructure society, with equal treatment for women sought in every facet of social life.  Radical feminism is more extreme than liberal feminism and basically holds the opinion that in order to realize equality gender roles and the social order must be redefined.  3. Socialist feminism  Also called Marxist feminism, socialist feminists seek gender equality by applying the ideas of Karl Marx to the family and gender relations.  Similar to the exploitation of the proletariat by the bourgeoisie, gender discrimination is seen as a product of capitalism and the conflicting nature of the family.  perspectives on gender o One can apply the basic sociological perspectives to understand gender:  1. Structural-functionalism  2. The conflict perspective  3. Symbolic interactionism