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Language^ Devices
and^ their^ Effects
Device^ Description
Effect(s)
Model response
Writer’s^ use^ of^
evidence^ and^ support
Facts^ A^ fact
is^ a^ piece^ of^ information that can^ be^ demonstrated
or proven^ to^ be^ true.
‐^ Facts^ are^ used^ to^ demonstrate
or^ emphasise a^ writer's^ point^ by^ providing
evidence^ to support^ claims ‐^ For^ example: 'As^ well^ as^ nicotine,
each^ cigarette^ contains more^ than^ 4,000^ different
chemicals,^ many^ of which^ are^ harmful^ to
the^ body'.
The^ facts^ used^ in^ this
article^ provide^ medical evidence^ that^ cigarettes
are^ dangerous.^ The reference^ to’4,000^ different
chemicals’^ is^ a fact^ that^ is^ designed
to^ shock^ the^ reader;
this makes^ the^ text^ more
powerful.
Opinions^ An
opinion^ is^ an^ individual's own^ thoughts^ or^ beliefs
‐^ Like^ facts,^ opinions
emphasise^ the^ point
of^ a writer^ but^ make^ the
message^ more^ personal rather^ than^ completely
factual ‐^ For^ example: 'Smoking^ is^ an^ awful
habit^ and^ anyone^ who smokes^ stinks'.
By^ expressing^ the^ strong
opinion^ that^ smoking is^ an^ ‘awful^ habit’^ and
that^ ‘anyone^ who smokes^ stinks,’^ the^
writer^ makes^ the^ message more^ personal,^ emphasises
the^ negative points^ of^ smoking,^ and
makes^ the^ reader^ feel almost^ obliged^ to^ have
a^ response.
Statistics^ A^ statistic
is^ numerical^ data^
‐^ Numerical^ data^ can
be^ used^ like^ facts^ to emphasise^ and^ demonstrate
the^ point^ of^ the writer ‐^ For^ example: '9^ out^ of^10 people^
voted^ against^ the^ proposal
The^ statistic^ ‘9^ out^ of
10 people’^ emphasises the^ significant^ numbers
opposing^ the development^ and^ lends
weight^ to^ the argument^ that^ the^ building
programme^ should not^ go^ ahead.
anecdotes^ A^ mini
‐story^ from^ personal experience^ about^ a^ person
or incident
‐^ Enhances^ the^ argument.
It^ makes^ the^ text more^ personal^ and^
connects^ to^ the^ reader’s experiences ‐For^ example:^ ‘Just^ yesterday^ I^ was
walking^ home^ from school^ when^ …’
When^ the^ writer^ describes
her^ experience with^ an^ anecdote^ ‘Just
yesterday^ I^ …’^ she gives^ the^ text^ a^ very
personal^ edge^ and^
many of^ us^ can^ connect^ here
with^ similar experiences^ of^ our^ own
which^ adds immediacy^ to^ her^ text.
Quotations^ Evidence
from^ source^ –^ and^ in non‐fiction^ writing^ often^ an expert source
‐It^ can^ create^ added
authority^ to^ make^ the text^ more^ convincing. Adds^ credibility^ to^ an
argument. ‐For^ example: ‘Animal^ research^ expert
Martin^ Davis^ said’^ All the^ evidence^ from^ our
studies^ point^ to^ the fact^ that^ elephants^
could^ be^ extinct^ in^20 years^ if^ nothing^ is^ done
to^ prevent^ tusk‐ hunting.’
The^ study^ stating^ that
‘elephants^ could^ be extinct^ in^20 years’^
is^ convincing^ because
we know^ it^ is^ given^ by^ an
‘animal^ research^ expert’ and^ this^ helps^ the^ article
persuade^ us^ that something^ needs^ to
be^ done^ since^ the evidence^ is^ being^ provided
by^ an^ expert^ in^ the field.
Writer’s^ text^ design
‐^ devices^ across
a^ text
Formal^ voice^ We
use^ formal^ language
in situations^ that^ are^ serious
or that^ involve^ people
we^ don’t know^ well. Formal^ language^ is^ more common^ when^ we^ write; There^ are^ also^ examples where^ spoken^ English
can^ be very^ formal,^ for^ example,
in^ a speech^ or^ a^ lecture.
‐This^ makes^ a^ text^ seem
more^ authoritative, with^ more^ power^ of
persuasion ‐For^ example:^ ‘After^ reading^ an^ article
about^ the^ frightening increase^ in^ truancy^
rates^ in^ Britain,^ I^ feel compelled^ to^ offer^ my
views^ on^ the^ subject.
I
was^ shocked^ and^ surprised
at^ the^ astoundingly high^ numbers^ of^ students
who^ truant^ every day.’
The^ use^ of^ formal^ voice
in^ this^ letter^ gives^ it
an authoritative^ tone.^
The^ word^ ’compelled’ makes^ the^ reader^ aware
of^ the^ seriousness^ of the^ writer’s^ intention.
The^ phrase ‘astoundingly^ high’^
is^ a^ formal^ expression which^ maintains^ the
serious^ tone.
Informal^ voice^ Informal
language^ is^ more commonly^ used^ in^ situations that are more^ relaxed^ and involve people^ we^ know^ well. Although^ more^ common when we^ speak,^ there^ are times where^ writing^ can^ be very informal^ eg,^ letters^ to friends, emails^ or^ texts.
‐This^ Involves^ the^ reader
at^ a^ more^ personal level. ‐It^ engages^ and^ makes
the^ text^ more accessible. ‐For^ example: The^ problem^ with^ being
a^ parent^ is^ kids!^ I know^ I^ am^ sounding
like^ something^ out^
a^ TV sitcom,^ but^ that’s^ the
way^ I^ see^ it.^ Now^ don’t get^ me^ wrong,^ I^ love
my^ kids,^ but^ come^
on^ – I’ve^ got^ a^ life,^ they’ve
got^ a^ life,^ we^ all^ have.
So let’s^ try^ to^ meet^ half
way.
The^ use^ of^ informal
voice^ helps^ engage
the reader^ as^ it^ seems^ more
familiar^ and^ relaxed, and^ it^ helps^ to^ form
a^ clear^ picture^ of^ the writer^ and^ his^ attitudes.
It^ makes^ for^ lively, entertaining^ reading.
In^ fact^ you^ could^ almost imagine^ him^ sitting^
in^ front^ of^ you^ saying these^ words.^ It^ certainly
stimulates^ a^ response from^ the^ reader.
Direct^ address^ Direct (^ Second person perspective^ )
address^ is^ when^ the text addresses^ the^ reader
in^ a way^ that^ makes^ it^ sound personal^ achieved^ through use^ of^ second^ person narration^ 'You'.
‐^ Directly^ addressing
the^ reader^ involves
them
in^ the^ text^ and^ makes
them^ think^ harder about^ what^ the^ text
is^ 'saying'. ‐It^ can^ create^ a^ friendly
tone^ and^ involve^ the reader^ making^ it^ feel
as^ though^ the^ text^
is addressed^ directly^ at
the^ reader^ involving them^ personally.^ It^ can
feel^ friendly,^ inviting even^ confiding.^ It^ can
also^ feel^ forceful^ and persuasive. ‐For^ example: ‘It’s^ a^ feeling^ that^ stays
with^ you^ forever.^ That wonderful^ moment
when^ you^ sit^ behind
the wheel^ and^ notice^ that
for^ the^ first^ time^ that the^ passenger^ seat^ isn’t
occupied^ by^ an instructor^ or^ examiner.’
The^ writer^ is^ sharing
a^ feeling^ that^ is^ not
just
personal^ but^ something
many^ adults^ will^ have experienced^ –^ that^
thrill^ of^ passing^ your driving^ test^ and^ the
freedom^ it^ gives^ you.
An adult^ reader^ will^ feel
more^ involved^ because they^ share^ the^ same
emotional^ response.
Tone^ Tone
is^ the^ author’s^ attitude to the^ topic. Objective^ tone^ is^ impartial
-^ it does^ not^ show^ any^
feelings^ for or^ against. Subjective^ tone^ is^ personal, biased,^ emotional^ and
often informal. Tone^ is^ expressed^ through
the words^ and^ details^ the
author selects.
Tone^ affects^ the^ way
we^ read^ and^ understand and^ respond^ to^ a^ text. ‐For^ example: Marla^ leapt^ down^ the
stairs,^ two^ at^ a^ time, flew^ into^ the^ living^ room,
threw^ open^ the window,^ and^ basked
in^ the^ glory^ of^ the^ freshly fallen^ snow. Then^ Marla^ plodded
downstairs^ to^ the^ living room,^ where^ she^ reluctantly
opened^ the window^ to^ find^ that
the^ sticky,^ freezing^
white stuff^ was^ falling^ from
the^ sky^ for^ the^ first
time that^ year.^ Ugh.
The^ first^ extract^ has
an^ enthusiastic^ tone. Marla’s^ excitement
is^ conveyed^ through
the use^ of^ the^ words^ ’flew’
‘threw’^ showing^ the speed^ with^ which^ she
moved.^ By^ stating^
that she^ ‘basked’^ in^ the^ ‘glory’
we^ are^ shown Marla’s^ delight^ in^ the
experience^ of^ the^ freshly fallen^ snow. The^ second^ extract^
has^ a^ gloomy^ tone.^
The word^ ‘^ plodded’^ reflects
her^ mood^ and^ lack
of enthusiasm^ is^ shown
through^ the^ use^ of ‘reluctantly.’^ By^ describing
the^ snow^ as ‘freezing^ white^ stuff’
she^ is^ avoiding^ making any^ emotional^ or^ connection
with^ it.^ The^ final word^ ‘Ugh.’^ Confirms
her^ negative^ response.
Writer’s^ text^ design
‐^ devices^ within
a^ text
A^ question Rhetorical questions that^ does^ not require an answer
‐^ Rhetorical^ questions
are^ used^ to^ engage
and involve^ the^ reader^ by
making^ them^ think. These^ are^ typically^ used
to^ make^ a^ text^ more persuasive. ‐^ For^ example: 'How^ many^ roads^ must
a^ man^ walk^ down before^ you^ call^ him^
a^ man?'^ (Bob^ Dylan)
The^ use^ of^ the^ rhetorical
question^ in^ the^ first line^ of^ this^ song^ engages
the^ reader^ from^ the start^ and^ makes^ them
think^ about^ the metaphor.^ The^ rest^
of^ the^ song^ regularly
uses rhetorical^ questions
and^ so^ increases^ the persuasiveness^ of^ the
text.^ Rhetorical questions^ make^ demands
of^ the^ listener;^ their response^ is^ required,
even^ subconsciously, and^ they^ are^ no^ longer
a^ passive^ listener.
List^ of^ three^ Three
words^ or^ reasons^ put together^ in^ a^ list
‐^ This^ technique^ helps
emphasise^ the^ point
of the^ text^ and^ helps^
cement^ the^ words^
in^ the mind^ of^ the^ reader. ‐^ For^ example: To^ get^ to^ the^ top^ of
their^ sport,^ footballers need^ to^ be^ talented,
skilful^ and^ focused.
Presenting^ three^ key
core^ skills^ ‘talented, skilful^ and^ focused’^
as^ a^ list^ is^ effective^
as^ it helps^ fix^ the^ words^
in^ the^ reader’s^ mind.
List of^ three^ is^ a^ powerful
tool^ for^ making^ words memorable;^ the^ human
brain^ likes^ patterns and^ structure,^ and^ rhythm.
By^ using^ groups^ of three,^ the^ brain^ recognises
the^ pattern^ and stores^ it^ more^ easily
in^ the^ memory.
Assertive^ Writing language
which^ presents information^ in^ a^ powerfully worded^ way It often uses^ imperatives eg must^ /^ have^ to
‐It^ gives^ the^ text^ an^
authoritative^ edge^ –makes it^ sound^ indisputable ‐For^ example: ‘Everybody^ knows^ that
‘It^ is^ undeniable^ that
….^ ‘
‘Everybody^ knows^ that…’
is^ a^ powerful opening^ phrase^ to^ the
sentence.^ The^ writer
is writing^ with^ a^ sense
of^ authority^ and^ it^ leads the^ reader^ to^ accept
his^ word^ on^ this^ subject without^ question.
Indirect^ A^ technique involvement
which^ requests the reader to^ be^ involved^ the in a particular^ through^ a^ key word
This^ technique^ engages
the^ audience ‐For^ example: ‘Imagine^ …’ ‘Think^ of^ …’ ‘Picture,^ if^ you^ will^ ….
‘Imagine’^ is^ a^ powerful
opening^ word^ as^ it^
asks the^ reader^ to^ use^ their
imagination^ to^ picture the^ scenario^ that^ follows.
This^ is^ effective^ in making^ the^ reader^ feel
more^ a^ part^ of^ the^
text. It^ is^ a^ direct^ appeal^
to^ ethos,^ and^ is^ extremely effective^ at^ the^ start
or^ end^ of^ a^ speech,
in particular.
Be^ aware^ of^ the^ different
uses and^ the^ reasons^ for
the^ uses. Long^ sentences^ or^ short sentences^ are^ chosen
for^ a purpose^ by^ a^ writer
as^ part^ of the^ crafting^ process. Long^ sentences^ can
be effective^ when^ trying
to^ build a^ picture^ or^ idea^ in^
a^ reader’s mind. Short^ sentences^ make information^ snappy
and^ quick, which^ can^ make^ certain
points 'stand^ out'^ more^ or^
give variation^ within^ the
text^ to keep^ the^ reader^ interested Short^ sentences^ are
also effective^ in^ building
tension and^ to^ make^ a^ dramatic
point. Ellipsis^ can^ demonstrate
a more^ relaxed^ register
and^ an informal^ way^ of^ writing making^ the^ text^ more personal. Contractions^ are^ examples
of ellipsis,('I'm^ hungry'
is^ less formal^ than^ 'I^ am^ hungry'.)
over^ canals^ and^ railways,
past^ churches perched^ high^ and^ nobly
over^ the^ smoke^ and shadows,^ through^ stark,
grimy^ cold^ little market^ places,^ tilting
away^ in^ a^ rush^ past cinemas^ And^ shops^
down^ to^ the^ hollow
where the^ collieries^ are,^ then
up^ again^ past^ s^ little rural^ church,^ under^
the^ ash^ trees,^ on^ in^
a^ rush to^ the^ terminus,^ the
last^ little^ ugly^ place
of industry,^ the^ cold^ little
town^ that^ shivers^ on the^ edge^ of^ the^ wild,
gloomy^ country^ beyond. Example^2 –^ Short^ sentences A^ decision^ was^ needed.
I^ pointed^ at^ my^ watch. ‘Ten^ minutes’^ I^ said.
Pertemba^ agreed.^ That helped^ us^ –^ it^ shifted
some^ responsibility
to the^ watch.^ I^ fumbled
in^ my^ sack^ and^ pulled
out our^ stove^ to^ leave^ behind.
The^ time^ was^ up. We^ had^ to^ continue
the^ climb. Example^3 –^ Ellipsis^
(When^ elements^ have been^ omitted^ from^
a^ sentence,^ phrase^
or word^ (they're^ 'missing'). ‘Forget^ the^ X^ Factor
.^.^.^ Mongolia’s^ got^
talons’ (Headline^ for^ an^ article
about^ the^ annual Eagle^ Festival^ in^ Mongolia
speed^ and^ distance
of^ the^ journey emphasised^ by^ words
such^ as^ ‘plunges’^ and ‘rush’^ The^ upward^ and
downward^ movement makes^ it^ feels^ like^ a
rollercoaster^ ride. ‘A^ decision^ was^ needed.’
Is^ presented^ as^ a short^ sentence^ to^ convey
its^ meaning^ –^ that there^ is^ no^ time^ for^
discussion,^ only^ action. The^ subsequent^ short
sentences^ help^ embed the^ idea^ that^ they^ have
to^ act^ quickly.^ They are^ experiencing^ minus
centigrade temperatures^ so^ they
do^ not^ want^ to^ linger
in the^ cold^ discussing^
the^ matter.^ They^ need
to move^ on^ and^ this^ is
effective^ conveyed through^ the^ use^ of^ short
sentences. The^ ellipsis^ is^ effective
because^ it^ gives^ a pause^ for^ effect^ allowing
the^ reader^ to connect^ the^ X^ Factor
and^ ‘talons/talent’^
.^ The pun^ for^ ‘got^ talons’^
(^ Got^ Talent’^ )^ works
better with^ ellipsis^ because
it^ prepares^ you^ for^
the joke^ which^ follows
Ellipsis^ can^ also^ be^ used
to indicate^ a^ dramatic^
pause ‘.^.^ .’^ showing^ words
are
missing Writer’s word^ choices Emotive Emotive^ language^ is language
designed to^ make^ the^ reader^
feel something^ and^ have
an emotional^ response
to^ the text.
‐This^ helps^ involve^ the
reader^ and^ make^ them feel^ a^ particular^ way. It^ creates^ an^ emotional
response^ from^ the reader^ (^ eg^ anger,^ shock,
guilt^ ). It^ is^ often^ used^ to^ manipulate
readers’^ feelings It^ can^ create^ a^ positive
or^ negative^ effect ‐^ For^ example: The^ hunted^ animals
are^ not^ killed^ quickly
that^ is^ a^ myth.^ There
is^ a^ long^ agonising^ chase before^ they^ are^ ripped
limb^ from^ limb.
The^ leaflet^ is^ intended
to^ be^ persuasive^ and
its use^ of^ emotive^ language
helps^ convey^ its powerful^ message.^
Use^ of^ the^ word ‘agonising’^ to^ describe
the^ chase^ creates^ the impression^ that^ the
suffering^ experienced
in the^ chase^ is^ immense.
The^ word^ ’ripped’^ is
a powerfully^ emotive
word^ which^ conveys
the brutality^ of^ the^ death
of^ these^ hunted animals.
Imagery^ Simile^ A^ figure
of^ speech^ that expresses^ a^ resemblance between^ things^ of^ different kinds (usually^ formed^ with 'like' or 'as') Metaphor A figure of^ speech^ in^ which^
an expression^ is^ used^ to
‐^ This^ helps compare create^ an^ image^ within
the reader's^ mind,^ which
helps^ interest^ them
in the^ text ‐^ For^ example: 'Cold^ as^ snow' ‐^ This^ helps^ create^ an
image^ within^ the reader's^ mind,^ which
helps^ interest^ them
in
‘This^ earth‐shattering
event^ will^ blow^ your mind^ away’ Puns^ A^ pun
is^ a^ play^ on^ words.^
Puns usually^ use^ words^ that
have^ a double^ meaning^ or^
that sounds^ the^ same^ but
have different^ meanings
‐^ Puns^ are^ often^ considered
witty^ and^ are^ used to^ engage^ the^ reader
by^ making^ them^ laugh.
It is^ a^ clever^ use^ of^ language. ‐^ For^ example: ‘The^ Burning^ Issue’ (^ The^ headline^ for^ an
article^ on^ deforestation
The^ pun^ effectively ) connects^ the^ reader
with the^ subject^ of^ the^ article
in^ a^ sharp^ and focused^ way.^ Deforestation
is^ about^ the burning^ down^ of^ forests
but^ the^ writer^ has also^ established^ his
debating^ point^ through the^ title,^ because^ it^
is^ a^ burning^ issue^ –^
a^ hot topic^ that^ needs^ to^
be^ considered^ seriously.
