Download James Marcia - Adolescence: Search for an Identity and more Study Guides, Projects, Research Social Psychology in PDF only on Docsity!
ADOLESCENCE:SEARCH FOR AN IDENTITY
Professor of Education & Chairman, Department of Education, Karnatak University, Dharwad (Karnataka). ABSTRACT
James Marcia (1991, 1994, 1999, 2002) expanded on Erikson's theory of identity formation. Specifically, he focused on two essential processes in achieving a mature identity:exploration and commitment. Erikson's observations about identity were extended by Marcia, who described four identity statuses:identity diffusion, foreclosure, moratorium and identity achievement. The present article describes the features of these four categories of identity status. It is concluded with the description of the formation of ethnic and racial identities. Ethnic and racial minority students are confronted with the challenge of forming an identity while living in two worlds – the values, beliefs, and behaviors of their group and those of the larger culture. These are highlighted in the present speculative article.
Keywords: Adolescence, Identity Confusion, Ethnic Identities, Racial Identities, Identity Statuses.
H. M. KASINATH
By
INTRODUCTION
In psychosocial theor y of development, Erikson emphasizes on the relationship between society and the individual. It is a theory that connects personal development (psycho) to the social environment (social). He believed that development pass through eight life stages, each of which involves a central crises. Adequate resolution of each crisis leads to greater personal and social competence and a stronger foundation for solving future crises. In the first two stages, an infant must develop a sense of trust over mistrust and a sense of autonomy over shame and doubt. In early childhood, the focus of the third stage is on developing initiative and avoiding feelings of guilt. In the child's elementary school years, the fourth stage involves achieving a sense of industry and avoiding feelings of inferiority. In the fifth stage, identity versus role confusion, adolescents consciously attempt to solidify their identity. According to Marcia, these efforts may lead to identity diffusion, foreclosure, moratorium, or achievement. Erikson's three stages of adulthood involve struggles to achieve intimacy, generativity, and integrity.
In the adolescence, the students develop capabilities for abstract thinking and understanding the perspectives of others. Physical changes also occur as they approach puberty. Thus, with developing minds and bodies, young
adolescents face the central issue of constructing an identity that will provide a firm basis for adulthood. Although a sense of self develops since infancy, but in adolescence conscious effort is made to answer the question : “Who am I ?” Identity refers to the organization of the individual's drives, abilities, beliefs, and history into a consistent image of self. It involves deliberate choices and decisions, particularly about work, values, ideology, and commitments to people and ideas (Miller, 2011 ; Penuel & Wertsch, 1995). If adolescents fail to integrate all these aspects and choices, or if they feel unable to choose at all, role confusion threatens. Identity Confusion Modern technocrats have speculated that establishing a separate identity is complicated for adolescents today because they are constantly connected to others through cell phones especially in the ages of 9 and 13. The chance to solve problems, experience autonomy, and handle situations on one's own is the basis for achieving identity and mature judgments. But the tethered child with enormous connectivity with others will never be alone. Adolescents can create new identities and keep multiple personalities “alive” through online life simulations sites. Some students even confused with their “life mix”, a mash
up of what they live online and what they live in real life. For some adolescents, the boundaries may be unclear and easily crossed. Connectivity also “offers new possibilities for experimenting with identity, particularly in adolescence, the sense of a free space, what Eric Erikson called the moratorium” (Turkle, 2011, p. 152). Thus, constant connectivity complicates achieving a separate identity and autonomy. Erikson's life-span development approach has been useful in understanding adolescence period and developing concepts of self. But feminists have criticized his notion that identity precedes intimacy, because their research indicated that for women, identity achievement is fused with achieving intimacy (Miller, 2011). Even recent research has focused on identity issues not fully explored by Erikson – racial and ethnic identity. Ethnic minority students have to “sift through two sets of cultural values and identity options” to achieve a firm identity, so they may need more time to explore possibilities – a longer moratorium in Erikson's terms (Markstrom – Adams, 1992 ; p. 177). Some psychologists consider ethnic identity as a “master status,” one that dominates all other identity concerns when judging the self (Herman, 2004 ; Charmaraman & Grossman, 2010). Identity Statues Erikson's observations on identity formation have been usefully extended by Marcia's notion of identity statuses (1966, 1980, 1991, 2002). These are styles or processes “for handling the psychosocial task of establishing a sense of identity” (Waterman & Archer, 1990, p. 38). Marcia identified four identity statuses. The attainment of a mature identity depends on two variables: crisis and commitment. “Crisis refers to times during adolescence when the individual seems to be actively involved in choosing among alternative occupations and beliefs. Commitment refers to the degree of personal investment the individual expresses in an occupation or belief (1967, p. 119).
Marcia established four identity statuses that vary in their degree of crisis and commitment:identity diffusion, foreclosure, moratorium and identity achievement. The
last two are generally thought to be more developmentally mature than the earlier two statuses because individuals exhibiting moratorium and identity achievement have either evaluated alternatives and made a commitment or are actively involved in obtaining and evaluating information in preparation for a commitment (Marcia, 2001). The brief description of each identity type in given in Table 1. Table 1 reveals that the more mature identity statuses are slow to evolve and are found in a relatively small percentage of individuals. Further, an identity status is not a one-and-for-all accomplishment; it can continue to undergo developmental change in adulthood (Fadjukoff, Pulkkinen, & Kokko, 2005). Lastly, because identity is an amalgam of commitments from a number of different domains, only a small percentage (about 20%) of adolescents will experience it. An adolescent is more likely to be firm in occupational choice than to be decisive in gender role or religious values (Waterman, 1988). Implications:Search for a Sense of Identity Adolescents may exhibit characteristics of different identity status types. Some may drift aimlessly; others may be distressed because they realize they lack goals and values. Some students may have self-chosen commitments; others may have accepted the goals and values of their parents. If some students seem depressed or bothered because they are unable to develop a satisfactory set of personal values, then it is better to consult psychologist or counselor. In addition one might use the techniques that might help these students to experience at least a degree of identity achievement. The components of identity that Erikson stressed are acceptance of one's appearance, knowledge about where one is going, and recognition from others. Role confusion is most frequently caused by failure to formulate clear ideas about gender roles and by indecision about occupational choice. At the high school level, individual differences are either ignored or discouraged and negative feedback greatly outweighs positive feedback (Toch, 2003). Teacher can contribute to their sense of positive identity by recognizing them as
adolescents could fit the unexamined category. A period of ethnic identity exploration (moratorium) might be followed by a resolution of the conflict (identity achieved). Racial Identities Determining a racial identity may be even more complicated for biracial or multiracial adolescents. The parents they live with, the life of their neighborhood, their appearance, and experiences of discrimination or support can influence these adolescents' decisions about racial identity. Psychologists think that these challenges help multiracial youth to develop stronger and more complex identities, but researchers argue that these challenges present an extra burden in an already tough process (Herman, 2004). The outcome depends in part on the support adolescents receive in facing the challenges. Cross, W. (1991); Cross & Cross, 2007; DeCuir-Gunby, (2009) devised a framework that specifically addresses framework that specially addresses African American racial identity (Woolfolk, 2012). The process he calls nigrescence (process of developing a Black identity) has five stages ·Pre-encounter: At this stage, adolescent value other aspects of their identity, such as religion, profession, or social status. ·Encounter: This stage is often triggered by encounters with overt, covert, or institutional racism. For instance, when an African American is assaulted by police, or sees news reports about such assaults, then they open their eyes to the reality that race matters in society. Then they become attuned to their Blackness. ·Immersion / Emersion: This is a transition that may cause adolescents to be anxious about “becoming the 'right kind' of Black person” (Cross, 1991, p. 202). They are eager to understand their racial heritage more deeply. In response to encounters with discrimination, the adolescents identify their lives with Blackness. They buy books on Black experiences and socialize mainly with other African Americans.
·Internalization: Adolescents are firmly connected to and highly secured in their sense of racial identity. They don't worry about others views. They are confident in their
own standards of Blackness. ·Internalization – Commitment: In this stage an adolescent continued to internalize, show interest in and commitment to Black affairs. Such adolescents plan their lives to connect to their Black racial identity. For instance, a painter dedicates his life to paint only Black images or a researcher dedicates her life to study only African American educational experiences. Ethnic and racial minority students are confronted with the challenge of forming an identity while living in two worlds – the values, beliefs, and behaviours of their group and those of the larger culture. Most explanations for identity development describes stages moving from being unaware of differences between minority group and majority cultures, to different ways of negotiating the differences, and finally to an integration of cultures. Special efforts are to be made to encourage racial and ethnic pride, i.e., a positive self-concept about one's racial or ethnic heritage, since it is the foundation of a stable identity (Spencer & Marksfrom-Adams, 1990). In one study, researchers found that African American preschool students whose homes were rich with African American culture had more factual knowledge and better problem-solving skills. Children who are proud of their heritage revealed few problem behaviours (Caughy, O'Campo, Randolph, & Nickerson, 2002). In other research, positive racial identity was found to be related to higher self-esteem and fewer emotional problems for both African American and White adolescents (DuBois, Burk-Braxton, Swenson, Tevendale, & Hardesty, 2002). For all students there is an ethnic heritage. Richard Milner (2003) has pointed to the importance of racial identity development and awareness. When majority of adolescents are knowledgeable and secure about their own heritage, they are more respectful to the heritage of others. Thus, exploring the racial and ethnic roots of students should foster both pride in self and acceptance of others (Rotherham-Borus, 1994). References [1]. Bilsker, D., & Marcia, J.E. (1991). Adaptive Regression and Ego Identity. Journal of Adolescence, 14(1), 75-84.
[2]. Caughy, M. O. M., O'Campo, P. J., Randolph, S. M., & Nickerson, K. (2002). The Influence of Racial Socialization Practices on the Cognitive and Behavioral Competence of African American Pre-Schoolers. Child Development, 73, 1611-1625. [3]. Charmaraman, L. & Grossman, J. M. (2010). Importance of Race and Ethnicity: An Exploration of Asian, Black, Latino, and Multiracial Adolescent Identity. Cultural Diversity and Ethnic Minority Psychology, 16, 144-151. [4]. Cramer, P. (2001). Identification and its Relation to Identity Development. Journal of Personality, 69(5), 667-
[5]. Cross, W. (1991). Shades of Black : Diversity in African- American Identity. Philadelphia, PA : Temple University Press. [6]. Cross, W. E., Jr. & Cross, T. B. (2007). Theory, Research, and Models. In S. M. Quintana & C. McKown (Eds.), Race, Racism and Developing Child (pp. 154-181). New York, NY : Wiley. [7]. DeCuir-Gunby, J. T. (2009). A Review of the Racial Identity Development of African American Adolescents : The Role of Education. Review of Educational Research , 79, 103-124. [8]. DuBois, D. L., Burk-Braxton, C., Swenson, L. P., Tevendale, H. D. & Hardesty, J. L. (2002). Race and Gender Influences on Adjustment in Early Adolescence : Investigation of an Integrative Model. Child Development, 73, 1573-1592. [9]. Fadjukoff, P., Pulkkinen, L., & Kokko, K. (2005). Identity Processes in Adulthood : Diverging Domains. Identity, 5(1), 1-20. [10]. Herman, M. (2004). Forced to Choose : Some Determinants of Racial Identification in Multiracial Adolescents, Child Development , 75, 730-748. [11]. Hoegh, D. G., & Bourgeois, M. J. (2002). Prelude and Postlude to the Self : Correlates of Achieved Identity. Youth & Society, 33(4), 573-594.
[12]. MacKinnon, J. L., & Marcia, J.E. (2002). Concurring Patterns of Women's Identity Status, Attachment Styles, and Understanding of Children's Development.
International Journal of Behavioral Development, 26(1), 70-80. [13]. Marcia, J. E. (1966). Development and Validation of Ego Identity Status. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 3(5), 551-558. [14]. Marcia, J. E. (1967). Ego Identity Status : Relationship to Change in Self-esteem, General Adjustment, and Authoritarianism. Journal of Personality , 35(1), 119-133. [15]. Marcia, J. E. (1980). Identity in Adolescence. In J. Adelson (Ed.), Handbook of Adolescent Psychology. New York : Wiley. [16]. Marcia, J. E. (1991). Identity and Self Development, In R. Lerner, A Peterson, & J. Brooks-Gunn (Eds.), Encyclopedia of Adolescence (Vol. 1). New York, NY : Garland. [17]. Marcia, J. E. (1994). The Empirical Study of Ego Identity. In H. Bosma, T. Graafsma, H. Grotebanc, & D. Delivita (Eds.), The Identity and Development. Newbury Park, CA : Sage. [18]. Marcia, J. E. (1999). Representational Thought in Ego Identity, Psychotherapy, and Psychosocial Development. In I. E. Sigel (Ed.), Development of Mental Representation : Theories and Applications. Mathwah, NJ : Erlbaum. [19]. Marcia, J. E. (2001). A Commentary on Seth Schwartz's Review of Identity Theory and Research. Identity , 1(1), 59-65. [20]. Marcia, J. E. (2002). Identity and Psychosocial Development in Adulthood. Identity , 2(1), 7-28. [21]. Marks, A. K. Patton, F., & Coll, C.G. (2011). Being Bicultural : A Mixed-Methods Study of Adolescents' Implicitly and Explicitly Measured Multiethnic Identities. Developmental Psychology, 47, 270- [22]. Markstrom–Adams, C. (1992). A Consideration of Intervening Factors in Adolescent Identity Formation. In G. R. Adams, R. Montemayor, & T. Gullotta (Eds.), Advances in Adolescent Development : Vol. 4. Adolescent Identity Formation (pp. 173-192). Newbury Park, CA : Sage. [23]. Miller, P. H. (2011). Theories of Developmental Psychology (5th Ed.). New York, NY : Worth. [24]. Milner, H. R. (2003). Teacher Reflection and Race in
