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IVY TECH APHY 102 FINAL EXAM LATEST
SUMMER-FALL REAL EXAM INSIGHT WITH
CORRECT ANSWERS GRADED A (100%
VERIFIED)
What can be found in (normal) feces? electrolytes. undigested food. bacteria. Differentiate between primary and permanent teeth. There are 20 primary (baby) teeth. There are 32 secondary (permanent) teeth. Differentiate between the functions of the different organs of the GI tract. Organs:
- mouth (mechanical breakdown of food; begins chemical breakdown of carbs)
- pharynx (connects mouth with esophagus)
- esophagus (peristalsis pushes food to stomach)
- stomach (secretes acid and enzymes; mixes food with secretions to begin enzymatic digestion of proteins)
- small intestine (mixes food with bile and pancreatic juice; final enzymatic breakdown of food molecules; main site of nutrient absorption)
- large intestine (absorbs water and electrolytes to form feces)
- rectum (regulates elimination of feces)
- anus Accessory organs:
- liver (produces bile, which emulsifies fat)
- gallbladder (stores bile and introduces it into the small intestine)
- pancreas (produces and secretes pancreatic juice, containing digestive enzymes and bicarbonate ions, into small intestine)
- salivary glands (secrete saliva, which contains enzymes that initiate breakdown of carbs) What are the functions of the digestive system? digestion, absorption, elimination Describe the different enzymes/chemicals used within digestion, where they are used, and what they digest.
Blood is about 8% of body weight. Adult blood volume is about 5 L. RBC count is usually 4,600,000-6,200,000 in males, 4,200,000-5,400,000 in females. WBC are usually 5,000-10,000 per cubic mm of blood. Platelets are usually 130,000-360,000 per cubic mm of blood. Normal blood pH is around 7.4. How does the Rh factor affect a developing fetus and its mother? Rh positive - presence of antigen D or other Rh antigens on the RBC membranes. Rh negative - lack of these antigens If a mother is Rh negative and her baby is Rh positive, her antibodies form to fight Rh-positive blood cells. If a mother is Rh positive and her baby is Rh positive, her antibodies attack the baby's RBC. Complications can lead the baby to develop erythroblastosis fetalis or hemolytic disease. What antigens can be found on RBC? What antibodies can be found in the plasma? How do these create different blood types? Type A blood has A antigens on its cell surface and anti-B antibodies in its plasma. Type B blood has B antigens on its cell surface and anti-A antibodies in its plasma. Type AB blood has both A and B antigens on its cell surface and no antibodies in its plasma. (It is the universal recipient). Type O blood has no antigens on its cell surface, but has both anti-A and anti-B antibodies in its plasma. (It is the universal donor).
Describe the different leukocytes and their origins. Neutrophils Eosinophils Basophils Monocytes Lymphocytes Compare the formed elements of the blood. RBCs, WBCs, and platelets all act together to maintain life. RBCs transport oxygen to the body's tissues, WBCs fight infections in the body, and platelets clot wounds that occur. Describe the steps in clot formation. Hemostasis - the stoppage of bleeding.
- Blood vessel spasm - smooth muscle in blood vessel contracts
- Platelet plug formation: a. break in vessel wall b. blood escapes through break
Neutrophils 50%-70% Eosinophils 1%-4% Basophils 0 - 1% Lymphocytes 20%-35% Monocytes 3%-8% Compare serum versus plasma. Plasma is the liquid part of blood, in which blood cells, nutrients and hormones float. Serum is the fluid part of blood, without the clotting factors or blood cells. What is hematocrit? percent of blood volume that is RBCs
How is the ANS used to regulate blood pressure? The autonomic nervous system regulates the blood pressure via several mechanisms. It regulates the degree of constriction or dilation of the blood vessels in body. Constriction of the blood vessels will result in an increase in the blood pressure and dilation of the blood vessels will result in a decrease in the blood pressure. The autonomic nervous system also alters the cardiac output, which will influence the blood pressure. Cardiac output is determined by multiplying the heart rate x the stroke volume. The stroke volume being the amount of blood ejected from the heart with each beat. The sympathetic nervous system ("fight or flight" system) results in an increase in heart rate and strength of heart contraction leading to a greater stroke volume. This increased cardiac output results in an elevation in the blood pressure usually. The parasympathetic nervous system is the "rest and digest" system that results in a decrease heart rate and stroke volume, which results in a lowering in the blood pressure. So, the autonomic nervous system controls the blood pressure through a few mechanisms and they usually occur simultaneously. What are the functions of the cardiovascular system? The four major functions of the cardiovascular system are:
- To transport nutrients, gases and waste products around the body
- To protect the body from infection and blood loss
- To help the body maintain a constant body temperature 4. To help maintain fluid balance within the body
Describe the layers of the heart and pericardium. The outer layer of the heart is the fibrous pericardium (also the epicardium). The inner layer of the pericardium is the visceral pericardium (it lies against the heart). And the outer layer of the pericardium is the parietal pericardium which lies against the wall of the pericardial cavity. The heart has three layers as well. The innermost layer is the endocardium, the middle layer is the myocardium, and the outermost layer is the epicardium (also the fibrous pericardium). Compare and contrast pulmonary, coronary, and systemic circulation. Pulmonary, coronary, and systemic circulation all work together to provide oxygen to the body and the heart and remove carbon dioxide waste from both. Pulmonary circulation is that which goes to and from the heart and lungs, oxygenating the blood and removing carbon dioxide from it. Coronary circulation is the blood supply provided to the heart and it oxygenates the heart. Systemic circulation is circulation from the heart to the whole body and back, dropping off oxygen to the body's tissues and picking up carbon dioxide to remove it from the body. What terms are used to describe abnormal heart rhythms?
Arrhythmia, atrial fibrillation, bradycardia, tachycardia, defibrillation, cardiac arrest, palpitations, Supraventricular tachycardia (SVT), Ventricular tachycardia, and ventricular fibrillation. Describe the pathway of blood into, through, and out of the heart- including valves. The blood enters the right atrium from the superior and inferior venae cavae and the coronary sinus and as it contracts, the blood is pushed through the tricuspid valve into the right ventricle. From there, the ventricles contract, pushing the blood into the pulmonary semi-lunar valve and out to the lungs. The blood is oxygenated and returns to the heart by the pulmonary veins, into the left atrium. The heart contracts and the blood is pushed through the mitral (bicuspid) valve into the left ventricle. As the heart contracts again, the blood is pushed out of the left ventricle, through the aortic semi-lunar valve and out to the rest of the body. What is arteriosclerosis? How does it occur? Thickening and hardening of vessel walls. Lipid and collagen fibers migrate into the vessel walls. Chronic disease of arterial system. Describe the pathway of the cardiac conduction system.
Compare and contrast passive versus active immunity. immunity that results from the production of antibodies against a foreign antigen state of permanent resistance duration: long immunity that results from transfer of antibodies from one individual to another immunity only provides temporary protection duration: short Compare and contrast primary versus secondary immune responses. primary: body is first exposed to antigen, lymphocyte is activated. secondary: same antigen is encountered at a later time. It is faster and of greater magnitude. Describe a lymphatic vessel. Fine, thin-walled, transparent valved channels distributed through most tissues. They have 3 walls: intima, media, and adventitia.
How is interleukin-1 used? It helps activate T cells. Describe the roles of IgG, IgD, IgE, IgA, and IgM. IgG- is in plasma and tissue fluids and is effective against bacteria, virsuses, and toxins and it activates complement proteins. IgA- is in breast milk, tears, nasal fluid, gastric juice, intestinal juice, and urine and it is an exocrine gland secretion. IgM- is a type of antibody produced in plasma in response to contact with certain antigens in foods or bacteria. IgD- is on the surfaces of most B cells and acts as an antigen receptor and is important in activating B cells. IgE- appears in exocrine secretions with IgA. It is associated with allergic reactions. Compare and contrast innate barriers versus adaptive immunity.
- Physical
- Cellular
- Chemical
dead neutrophils Describe differences between T cells and B cells. --B cells are most effective in fighting bacteria. Major function is to produce antibody. There are memory B cells that stay in the body for long periods of time and when same antigen enters the body, they can make antibody very quickly. They start in the bone marrow as undifferentiated cells and then somehow are altered to have surface antigens that identify them as B cells. The fully mature B cell is a plasma cell that has the ability to make antibody. --T cells are a type of white blood cell that is of key importance to the immune system and is at the core of adaptive immunity, the system that tailors the body's immune response to specific pathogens. The T cells are like soldiers who search out and destroy the targeted invaders. Who regulates pituitary gland secretion? hypothalamus What is a hormone and how does it act? Hormones are chemical messengers that are responsible for regulation. They are secreted into body fluids, mainly blood. It has specific actions on target tissues, which are any tissue that has specific receptors for that particular hormone.
Compare and contrast glucagon and insulin. Glucagon stimulates the liver to break down glycogen and convert noncarbohydrates into glucose and it stimulates the breakdown of fats. Insulin promotes the formation of glycogen from glucose, inhibits conversion of noncarbohydrates into glucose, and enhances movement of glucose through adipose and muscle cell membranes, decreasing blood glucose concentration and promotes transport of amino acids into cells, as well as enhances synthesis of proteins and fats. Both work to keep blood glucose concentration constant, but glucagon breaks down glycogen into glucose and insulin forms glycogen from glucose. How are pheromones different than hormones? is a chemical signal sent between members of the same species. Are a type of hormone that are released in small quantities and play a big role in physical attraction between people. How is inhibin used in the body? Inhibits the anterior pituitary gland by negative feedback. This action prevents over secretion of FSH. It is secreted by cells of the testes and ovaries. FSH is secreted by anterior pituitary gland. It is a glycoprotein hormone.
Describe the different types of motility and mixing within the digestive system. Food is first mixed with saliva in the mouth and then is pushed down the esophagus by peristalsis. Then it is mixed with gastric juice and pushed into the small and large intestine where it is moved along toward the rectum by segmentation. What are the functions of the accessory organs/glands in the digestive system? Organs:
- mouth (mechanical breakdown of food; begins chemical breakdown of carbs)
- pharynx (connects mouth with esophagus)
- esophagus (peristalsis pushes food to stomach)
- stomach (secretes acid and enzymes; mixes food with secretions to begin enzymatic digestion of proteins)
- small intestine (mixes food with bile and pancreatic juice; final enzymatic breakdown of food molecules; main site of nutrient absorption)
- large intestine (absorbs water and electrolytes to form feces)
- rectum (regulates elimination of feces)
- anus Accessory organs:
- liver (produces bile, which emulsifies fat)
- gallbladder (stores bile and introduces it into the small intestine)
- pancreas (produces and secretes pancreatic juice, containing digestive enzymes and bicarbonate ions, into small intestine)
- salivary glands (secrete saliva, which contains enzymes that initiate breakdown of carbs) What is bile? How does it work? Bile is a yellowish-green liquid that hepatic cells continuously secrete. It contains water, bile salts, bile pigments, cholesterol, and electrolytes. The bile salts in it work to emulsify fats as well as help absorb fatty acids, cholesterol, and fat-soluble vitamins. What is heartburn? when the gastric jucies backflow into the esophagus Describe the nervous system's role for digestion. Parasympathetic impulses increase activities of digestive system. Sympathetic impulses inhibit certain digestive actions. Differentiate between mechanical and chemical digestion within the different organs of the GI tract.
