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Ivy tech APHY 101 Final Exam/ Actual Exam Questions
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What is the epiphyseal plate? - ANS - as spongy bone is deposited in the diaphysis and in the epiphysis, a band of cartilage will form what are osteoclasts? - ANS - cells that break down bone what are osteoblasts? - ANS - bone forming cells what are the functions of the skeletal system? - ANS - support, protection, movement, storage, blood cell formation What is the axial skeleton? - ANS - skull, vertebral column, rib cage What is the appendicular skeleton? - ANS - pectoral girdle, upper limbs, pelvic girdle, lower limbs what are the steps of fracture repair? - ANS - 1. Hematoma formation- blood vessels, tissues in broken bone are torn resulting in a Hematoma mass of clotted cells. Bone cells with no nutrition will die and area will become irritated.
- Fibrocartilaginous callus formation- phagocytic cells invade the area and begin cleaning up the debris.
- Bone callus formation- about 1 week into repair, new bone begins to repair. This is called a bony callus. This continues for about 3 months.
- Bone remodeling- excess material removed, shaft was reconstructed.
how are bones classified? - ANS - by shape What is the sarcoplasmic reticulum? - ANS - the endoplasmic reticulum of a muscle cell. surrounds each myofirbril and runs parallel to it. What are transverse tubules? - ANS - - they play an important role in the transmission of the stimulus of muscle contraction.
- contains extracellular fluid. what is the function of actin? - ANS - they are the force generating proteins of the sarcomere, and they work together during the muscle contraction cycle in order to produce movement. the contractile proteins that forms the thick filaments. What is the neuromuscular junction? - ANS - the synapse where a motor neuron and skeletal muscle fiber meet how does acetylcholine play a role in the neuromuscular junction? - ANS - - it is the neurotransmitter that motor neurons use to control skeletal contraction.
- it is synthesized in the cytoplasm of the motor neuron and is stored in the synaptic vesicles near the distal end of its axson. How does muscle contraction occur? - ANS - The cross bridges 'grab hold' of the actin filaments and pull them in order to cause contraction - ATP supplies energy for this what are the shapes of bones? - ANS - long, short, flat, irregular example of long bone - ANS - femur example of short bones - ANS - carpals and tarsals in the ankle and wrist examples of flat bones - ANS - ribs, scapulae, and some bones of the skull
define hyper extension - ANS - increasing the angle beyond 180 degrees between the bones of a joint (a back bend) define dorsiflexion - ANS - movement at the ankle that moves the anterior portion of the foot closer from the shin (rocking back on your heels) define plantar flexion - ANS - movement at the ankle that moves the anterior portion of the foot father from the shin (walking on your toes) define abduction - ANS - moving away from the midline (lifting upper limb horizontally to form an angle with the side of the body) define adduction - ANS - moving towards the midline (returing upper limb from horizontal position) define rotation - ANS - moving a part around an axis (twisting head from side to side) define circumduction - ANS - moving a part so that its ends follows a circular path (arm cirlces, moving finger in circular motion without moving the hand) define supination - ANS - rotation of forearm so that the palm is upward or facing anteriorly define pronation - ANS - rotation of the forearm so the palm is downward or facing posteriorly define eversion - ANS - turning the foot so the plantar surface faces laterally define inversion - ANS - turning the foot so the plantar surface faces medially define protraction - ANS - moving a body part forward and parallel to the ground (moving the head forward)
define retraction - ANS - moving a part backward (pulling the head backward) define elevation - ANS - raising a body part (shrugging the shoulders) define depression - ANS - lowering a body part (drooping the shoulders) what is fascia - ANS - layers of dense connective tisues that hold muscles in position. What is a tendon? - ANS - Attaches muscle to bone What is aponeurosis? - ANS - broad, fibrous sheet that may attach to bone, skin, or to the connective tissue of adjacent muscles. what is a muscle fiber? - ANS - a single muscle cell what are myofibrils? - ANS - any of the elongated contractile threads found in striated muscle cells. what is actin? - ANS - thin filaments what is myosin? - ANS - thick filaments what is the sarcolemma? - ANS - muscle cell membrane What is a sarcomere? - ANS - contractile unit of a muscle fiber & functional unit of muscle cell what are the parts of a long bone? - ANS - epiphysis and diaphysis What is the epiphysis? - ANS - end of a long bone that articulates (forms a joint) with another bone.
What is the origin? - ANS - immovable end of a muscle What is insertion? - ANS - more moveable end of a muscle what is a prime mover? - ANS - muscle that provides most of a particular body movement (agonist) What is a synergist? - ANS - Muscles that aids a prime mover in a movement and helps prevent rotation Ex: When making a fist, the synergist muscles prevent the wrist from bending. The muscles stabilize and allow the prime mover to act on the finger joints (muscle that assists the action of angonist) What are antagonists? - ANS - - muscle that causes opposite movement to an agonist
- (book definition) muscle that opposes a particular movement What is the central nervous system (CNS)? - ANS - Consists of the brain and the spinal cord and is the origin of all complex commands and decisions. what is the peripheral nervous system? - ANS - - the sensory and motor neurons that connect the CNS to the rest of the body What is the autonomic nervous system? - ANS - - This regulates events that are automatic, or involuntary, such as the activity of the smooth and cardiac muscles and glands.
- This is often referred to as the involuntary nervous system. what is the somatic nervous system? - ANS - communicates voluntary (conscious) instruction originating in the CNS to skeletal muscles that cause contraction
what are the basic parts of a neuron? - ANS - cell body, dendrites, axon what are the functional classifications of neurons? - ANS - sensory neurons, interneurons, and motor neurons what are sensory neurons? - ANS - neurons that carry incoming information from the sensory receptors to the brain and spinal cord what are interneurons? - ANS - neurons within the brain and spinal cord that communicate internally and intervene between the sensory inputs and motor outputs what are motor neurons? - ANS - conduct impulses out of the brain or spinal cord to effectors (example: glands) What are neuroglial cells? - ANS - they are support cells that surround neurons and provide nutrients, immune support, and appropriate external environment what are the four types of neuroglial cells? - ANS - 1. Astrocytes
- Oligodendrocytes
- Microglia
- Ependymal cells What is the resting membrane potential? - ANS - Difference in electrical charge across the membrane at rest what ions are involved during the resting membrane potential? - ANS - sodium and potassium what is polarization? - ANS - - difference in electrical charge between the inside and outside of the cell
- Book definition: electrical charge difference across a cell membrane surface due to an unequal distribution of positive and negative ions on either side
what are the layers of meninges? - ANS - dura mater, arachnoid mater, pia mater What are ventricles? - ANS - four interconnected cavities that lie in the cerebral hemispheres and brainstem. filled with CSF and are continuous with the central canal of the spinal cord. what is the function of the spinal cord? - ANS - •Center for spinal reflexes. •Conduit (pathway) for impulses to and from the brain. what is a simple reflex? - ANS - A simple, automatic response to a stimuli Enables us to respond quickly to stimuli that could harm us (knee-jerk reflex is an example) what functional neurons are involved in a simple reflex? - ANS - motor and sensory neurons What are ascending tracts? - ANS - spinal tracts that conduct sensory information to the brain what are descending tracts? - ANS - spinal tracts that conduct motor commands from the brain via motor neurons and they reach muscles and glands What are the lobes of the brain? - ANS - frontal, parietal, occipital, temporal, insula What are fissures? - ANS - deep grooves in the brain what are convolutions? - ANS - The folds of the cerebrum for more surface area what are sulci? - ANS - shallow grooves what are the basic functions of the cerebrum? - ANS - - Major processing center of the brain.
- associated with reasoning, planning, parts of speech, movement, emotions, and problem solving. controls voluntary muscle movements.
Functions of the frontal lobe - ANS - voluntary motor functions, concentration, verbal communication, decision making, planning, personality functions of temporal lobe - ANS - - sensory areas that are responsible for hearing
- interpret sensory experiences and remember visual scenes, music, and other complex sensory patterns.
- sense of smell functions of occipital lobe - ANS - visual processing functions of parietal lobe - ANS - perception of stimuli related to touch, pressure, temperature, pain functions of the insula lobe - ANS - - sensory area for taste
- hard to study because of how deep it is within the cerebrum.
- fMRI scans suggest that the insula serves as a cross roads for translating sensory information into the appropriate emotional response. What is the basal ganglia? - ANS - a group of structures linked to the thalamus in the base of the brain and involved in coordination of movement. What is the diencephalon? - ANS - - thalamus, hypothalamus, epithalamus
- posterior forebrain
- located between the cerebral hemispheres and superior to the brainstem what is the hypothalamus? - ANS - A built-in thermostat and appetite center and relays messages to the thalamus what is the function of the hypothalamus? - ANS - - the hypothalamus is responsible for visceral functions such as hunger/body weight, thirst, and sex drive
- heart rate & arterial blood pressure
What is the cerebellum? - ANS - - communication with other parts of the CNS by tracts
- integrates sensory information concerning position of body parts
- coordinates muscle activities and maintains posture what is the function of the vagus nerve? - ANS - - motor fibers that conduct impulses to muscles of the larynx and pharynx.
- associated with speech and swallowing reflexes.
- autonomic motor fibers of the vagus nerves supply the heart and many smooth muscles & glands in the viscera of the thorax and abdomen sympathetic nervous system - ANS - - the division of the autonomic nervous system that arouses the body, mobilizing its energy in stressful situations
- fight or flight responses parasympathetic nervous system - ANS - the division of the autonomic nervous system that calms the body, conserving its energy what are the five types of sensory receptors? - ANS - mechanoreceptors, thermoreceptors, nociceptors, electromagetic receptors, and chemoreceptors What is sensory adaptation? - ANS - ability to ignore unimportant stimuli Chemoreceptors - ANS - respond to changes in chemical concentrations pain receptors - ANS - - also called nociceptors
- respond to tissue damage Thermoreceptors - ANS - respond to changes in temperature
Mechanoreceptors - ANS - respond to mechanical forces by detecting changes that deform the receptors what are the three mechanoreceptors? - ANS - proprioceptors, baroreceptors, stretc receptors Proprioceptors - ANS - respond to changes in the tension of muscles and tendons baroreceptors - ANS - detect changes in blood pressure stretch receptors - ANS - respond to the degree of inflation in the lungs what are free nerve endings? - ANS - responsible for the sensation of itching and other sensations What are Meissner's corpuscles? - ANS - touch receptors What are pacinian corpuscles? - ANS - deep pressure receptors What are warm receptors? - ANS - - those that respond to warmer temperatures
- most sensitive to temperatures above 77 degrees F, 25 C
- become unresponsive at 113F/45C. will trigger pain receptors and produce a burning sensation what are cold receptors? - ANS - - those that respond to colder temperatures
- most sensitive to temps between 50F/10C and 68F/20C.
- temps dropping below 68F/20C also stimulates pain receptors, producing a freezing sensation what are the muscle spindles? - ANS - receptors sensitive to change in length of the muscle and the rate of that change What are golgi tendon organs? - ANS - - tendons close to their attachments of muscles
- connects to a set of skeletal muscle fibers and is innervated by a sensory neuron
eardrum. The sound wave hits the eardrum, causing it to vibrate. The eardrum transmits these vibrations into the inner ear where they are amplified. how do the hearing receptors work? - ANS - Hair cells in the cochlea bend slightly in response to vibrations, sending an electric message to the auditory nerve. Each hair cell responds to a different wavelength of vibration. The auditory nerve sends messages through the center of the brain to the side of the brain, the temporal-lobe cerebral cortex. what is static equilibrium? - ANS - maintenance of balance wen the head and body are not in motion What is dynamic equilibrium? - ANS - maintenance of balance when the head and body are suddenly moved or rotated what anatomical structures are associated with static equilibrium? - ANS - The saccule and utricle each contain a sense organ, called the macula, where stereocilia and their supporting cells are found. what anatomical structures are associated with dynamic equilibrium? - ANS - The cristae of the semicircular ducts, which form one of the two sensory organs of balance (the second being the maculae of the utricle and saccule), respond to rotational movements and are involved in dynamic equilibrium what are the basic anatomical parts of the eye? - ANS - retina, cornea, iris, lens, sclera, choroid coat what does the retina do? - ANS - Contains light receptors (photoreceptors) transparent sheet of tissue what does the cornea do? - ANS - Helps focus entering light rays what is the iris? - ANS - Controls the diameter of the pupil and how much light enters colored part of the eye what is the lens? - ANS - the transparent structure behind the pupil that changes shape to help focus images on the retina
What is the sclera of the eye? - ANS - white part of the eye what is the choroid coat? - ANS - a pigmented, highly vascular membrane of the eye that is continuous with the iris and lies between the sclera and the retina, functioning to nourish the retina and absorb scattered light What are rods and cones and what do they do? - ANS - - Rods and cones are the two kinds of photoreceptors.
- Rods are light sensitive and are located in the periphery of the retina
- help us see in low light conditions cones are involved with wavelength and visual acuity (ability to see detail)
- center of retina
- perform better in good lighting What is the difference between anatomy and physiology? - ANS - Anatomy - Greek for "Cutting up", examines the structures of body parts - their forms and organization Physiology - Greek for "relationship to nature", considers the functions of body parts - what they do and how they do it. What are the levels of organization and define each - ANS - Atom, molecule, macromolecule, Organelle, Cell, Tissue, Organ, organ systems, organism atom - ANS - Smallest particle of an element Molecule - ANS - A group of atoms bonded together Macromolecules - ANS - A very large organic molecule composed of many smaller molecules organelle - ANS - A tiny cell structure that carries out a specific function within the cell
receptors - ANS - provide information about specific conditions (stimuli) in the internal environment. control center - ANS - decision maker that includes a set point which is usually a particular value. effectors - ANS - muscles or glands that take action and cause the appropriate response What is negative feedback? - ANS - Body REVERSES an original stimulus to regain balance what is positive feedback? - ANS - Body ENHANCES original stimulus to make deviation greater what is matter - ANS - Anything that has mass and takes up space what is an element - ANS - simplest examples of matter with specific chemical properties what is an atom? - ANS - Basic unit of matter what is the structure of an atom? - ANS - There is a nucleus made up of protons(+) and neutrons(no charge) surrounded by a cloud or ring of electrons(-). In a neutral charged atom, there is one proton for every electron. What is the nucleus? - ANS - central portion of the atom composed of protons and neutrons and the electrons move around it what is a proton? - ANS - positively charged particle found in the nucleus what is an electron? - ANS - negatively charged particle what is a neutron? - ANS - a particle that has no charge and that is inside the nucleus What is a covalent bond? - ANS - A chemical bond formed when two or atoms share electrons.
what is an ionic bond? - ANS - A chemical bond that's formed when an atom transfers an electron to another Atom what is a hydrogen bond? - ANS - the attraction of the positive hydrogen end of a polar molecule to the negative nitrogen/oxygen end of another polar molecule. These bonds are relatively weak. what is synthesis? - ANS - when two or more elements or compounds combine to make a more complex substance A+B---> AB What is decomposition? - ANS - the process by which chemicals are returned to the ecosystem from dead biotic matter. AB --> A+B what is exchange? - ANS - replacement reaction, parts of two different types of molecules trade positions as bonds are broken and new bonds are formed. AB + CD ---> AD + CB What is a reversible reaction? - ANS - products or product can change back to the reactant or reactants. A + B <--> AB what is a reactant - ANS - starting materials of a chemical reaction: the atoms, ions or molecules what is a product? - ANS - substances formed at the end of the chemical reaction. what is a catalyst? - ANS - substance that speeds up the rate of a chemical reaction what happens and what is produced when salts dissolve in water? - ANS - When ionically bound substances are placed in water, the ions are attracted to the positive and negative ends of the water molecules and tend to leave each other or dissociate what is an acid? - ANS - electrolytes (substances that release ions in water, the solution can conduct an electric current) that dissociate to release hydrogen ions in water
