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Intro to Sociology – ( 2025) Exam 2 With
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Social Stratification ✔️ ✔️ Refers to a system by which a society ranks categories of people in a hierarchy. 4 Principles of Social Stratification✔️ ✔️ 1. It is a trait of society, not a reflection of individual differences.
- It persists over generations.
- It's universal but variable.
- It involves not just inequality but beliefs as well. Social Inequality✔️ ✔️ The existence of unequal opportunities and rewards for different social positions or statuses within a group or society. Conflict Theory ✔️ ✔️ Focuses on power and inequality.
- Competition for scarce resources 3 Basic Assumptions of Conflict Theory✔️ ✔️ - People have interests
- Power is at the heart of social structure
- Values and ideas are not necessarily source of integration and aid Marxist Perspective✔️ ✔️ Alienation and Exploitation Alienation - Marx✔️ ✔️ Increase in value of the world of things --> devaluation of the human world Exploitation - Marx✔️ ✔️ A man's relation to another is based on his position as a worker
Weber's Perspective✔️ ✔️ Private Ownership and Exploitation Objectification of Labor - Marx✔️ ✔️ Objects are independent of labor itself and alien to the workers Work is External, Not Natural to Workers - Marx✔️ ✔️ All they can control: eating, drinking, fornicating Alienated Labor - Marx✔️ ✔️ - Alienates nature from man
- Alienates man from himself
- Turns the species-life of man and nature into an alien being, and a means for his individual existence respectively Structural Functionalist Perspective✔️ ✔️ Focuses on consensus and cooperative interaction in social life (Not really a theory of stratification)
- Spencer's Social Darwinism (Survival of the Fittest) Davies and Moore's Perspective✔️ ✔️ - Inequalities are inherent to society
- Inequality has to serve a purpose (Society needs to motivate people)
- Talent (People with talent have opportunity and should receive compensation)
- Most important positions are filled by the most qualified persons. Davies and Moore's Perspective (Cullen and Novick 1979)✔️ ✔️ Other things being equal (specifically importance, talent, and training):
Perruci and Wysong's Perspective✔️ ✔️ Marxist Tradition Concepts for Social Inequality✔️ ✔️ 1. Income 2. Wealth
- Lifestyle
- Ideology
- Income✔️ ✔️ Money received from sources such as wages and salaries, as well as from the interest, dividends, and rent generated by wealth.
- Wealth✔️ ✔️ The value of financial assets such as savings, real estate, stocks, and bonds, minus any outstanding debts.
- Lifestyle✔️ ✔️ Different amount of money = different lifestyles.
- Ideology✔️ ✔️ A system of ideas and ideals, one that forms the basis of economic or political theory and policy. Elements of Ideology✔️ ✔️ 1. Individual Achievement 2. Importance of Hard Work
- Equality of Opportunity
- Capitalist Ideology
- Individual Achievement✔️ ✔️ Importance of the single person over any social group
- Importance of Hard Work✔️ ✔️ All people should have the same chance to achieve success
- Equality of Opportunity✔️ ✔️ Meritocracy
- Capitalist Ideology✔️ ✔️ System that produces prosperity Social Mobility✔️ ✔️ Movement from one stratum of a stratification system to another Individual vs. Structural Mobility✔️ ✔️ Individual = race, ethnicity, gender, religion, level of education, occupation, place of residence, health Structural = changes in society that enhances large numbers of people's opportunities to move up social ladder at the same time. (Industrialization, increases in education, postindustrial computerization) Barriers to Social Mobility✔️ ✔️ Elements that prevent individuals and/or groups of individuals from moving from one stratum to another Structures that promote Social Inequality✔️ ✔️ Taxation, budgeting, regulation and business oversight, policy making groups, lobbying, influence of the media. Taxation✔️ ✔️ The act of being taxed, or taxing Budgeting ✔️ ✔️ An estimate, often itemized, of expected income and expense for a given period in the future. Regulation and Business Oversight✔️ ✔️ - A law, rule or other order prescribed by authority, to regulate conduct. Policy Making Groups✔️ ✔️ Think tanks, policy-making groups, neoconservative movement Lobbying✔️ ✔️ Influencing the policies of the government, federal lobbying, class-based lobbying
Ecology of Class (Middle Class)✔️ ✔️ - Impact of residential and occupational location on life
- Education
- Power plant Capitalism and global; trends (Middle Class)✔️ ✔️ - Downsizing
- Outsourcing
- Temporary Work The Working Class✔️ ✔️ -Generally employed
- Not necessarily economically comfortable
- Restricted financial, human, cultural and social capital Examples = unskilled workers, artisans, outworkers, factory workers. Absolute Poverty✔️ ✔️ A scarcity of resources so severe that it is life-threatening Relative Poverty✔️ ✔️ A lack of the basic resources needed to maintain a standard of living considered acceptable in a particular society Poverty Line (U.S.)✔️ ✔️ A measure of scarcity determined by figuring the cost of a minimal food budget and multiplying it by three Poverty Rate✔️ ✔️ The percentage of the population that falls below the poverty line Feminization of Poverty✔️ ✔️ A trend in which women have come to make up an increasingly large share of the poor Stigma✔️ ✔️ Discrepancy between virtual and actual identity Perceptions of Social Identity✔️ ✔️ - Mostly negative
- Lack of concern and personal responsibility
- Burdensome
- Deservingness
- Stigma consciousness Perceptions of Personal Identity✔️ ✔️ - Deconstruction of stigmatized identity "What would nonpoor people like to know about those living in poverty?
Not easy, not irresponsible spenders, not lazy and stupid (not poor by choice), not a burden to society, similar to other folks Responses to Poverty Stigma✔️ ✔️ - Confronting discrimination
- Disregarding negative responses
- Withdraw
- Concealing poverty
- Cognitive distancing
- Helping other low income people Cultural Capital✔️ ✔️ Assets that consist of various types of knowledge, skills, and other cultural resources Social Capital✔️ ✔️ Relationships that are potentially economically valuable resulting from membership in a group School✔️ ✔️ Individual Mobility and Class Reproduction Hidden Curriculum✔️ ✔️ The lessons students learn simply by attending school, in contrast to the lessons from the formal subject-specific curriculum How schools reinforce Social and Economic Inequality✔️ ✔️ - Access to resources
- Sorting by class
Power and Global Inequality =✔️ ✔️ Dependency Theory Modernization Theory✔️ ✔️ Global inequality is due to cultural differences between countries Dependency Theory✔️ ✔️ Global inequality is due to the exploitation of weaker, poor nations by wealthy, more powerful ones Explaining Global Inequality✔️ ✔️ Colonialism and Neocolonialism Colonialism✔️ ✔️ The use of military, political, and economic power by one society to dominate the people of another society, usually for economic benefit Neocolonialism✔️ ✔️ A system of economic domination of poorer nations by wealthier ones without formal political control or military occupation World Systems Analysis✔️ ✔️ Analysis that focuses on the interdependence among the countries in a single global economic system Race to the Bottom✔️ ✔️ The process of poorer nations competing for foreign investment by sacrificing wages, tax revenue, worker safety, and environmental standards Ethnicity✔️ ✔️ Shared cultural heritage, often deriving from a common ancestry and homeland Race✔️ ✔️ A category of people widely perceived as sharing socially significant physical characteristics such as skin color Racism✔️ ✔️ The belief that one race is inherently superior to another
Racial Essentialism✔️ ✔️ The idea that supposedly natural and immutable differences separated the races Minority Group✔️ ✔️ A collection of people who suffer disadvantages and have less power because of identifiable physical or cultural characteristics Majority Group ✔️ ✔️ A collection of people who enjoy privileges and have more access to power because of identifiable physical or cultural characteristics Prejudice✔️ ✔️ The "pre-judging" of someone or some group negatively based on inadequate information Stereotypes✔️ ✔️ Exaggerated, distorted, or untrue generalizations about categories of people that do not acknowledge individual variation Discrimination✔️ ✔️ Unequal treatment that gives advantages to one group of people over another without justifiable cause Cultural Appropriation✔️ ✔️ Refers to the adoption of some specific elements of one culture by a different cultural group (Halloween) Patterns of Majority-Minority Interaction✔️ ✔️ 1. Pluralism 2. Amalgamation
- Assimilation
- Segregation
- Genocide Pluralism✔️ ✔️ Distinct ethnic and racial groups coexist on equal terms and have equal social standing
Affirmative Action✔️ ✔️ A variety of policies and programs that aim to avoid discrimination and redress past discrimination through the active recruitment of qualified minorities for jobs, promotions, and educational opportunities Color-Blind Racism✔️ ✔️ The promotion of race neutrality when it actually helps to maintain existing racial and ethnic inequality Transnational Migrants✔️ ✔️ Immigrants who retain strong personal, cultural, and economic ties both to their country of birth and their newly adopted home Unauthorized Immigration✔️ ✔️ "Illegal" or "Undocumented" Institutional Discrimination✔️ ✔️ Discrimination resulting from the structural organization, policies, and procedures of social institutions such as the government, businesses, and schools Split Labor Market Theory✔️ ✔️ Theory which argues that ethnic and racial conflicts often emerge when two racial or ethnic groups compete for the same jobs Scapegoat✔️ ✔️ An individual or group of people falsely blamed for a negative situation Post-Civil Rights✔️ ✔️ Hidden Prejudice, Implicit Bias, the "New Racism"
