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Intro Sociology Midterm (2025) Exam
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sociological imagination ✔️ ✔️ C. Wright Mills coined this phrase; the application of imaginative thought to the asking and answering of sociological questions social structure ✔️ ✔️ the underlying regularities or patterns in how people behave and in their relationships with one another socialization ✔️ ✔️ the social processes through which children develop an awareness of social norms and values and achieve a distinct sense of self globalization ✔️ ✔️ the development if social and economic relationships stretching worldwide; we are influenced by organizations and social networks located thousands of miles away social facts ✔️ ✔️ according to Emile Durkheim, the aspects of social life that shape our actions as individuals organic solidarity ✔️ ✔️ according to Emile Durkheim, the social cohesion that results from the various parts of a society functioning as an integrated whole social constraint ✔️ ✔️ the conditioning influence on our behavior of the groups and societies of which we are members division of labor ✔️ ✔️ the specialization of work tasks, by means of which different occupations are combined within a production system
anomie ✔️ ✔️ a concept first brought upon by Durkheim, referring to a situation in which social norms lose their hold over individual behavior materialist conception of history ✔️ ✔️ the view developed by Marx, according to which material, or economic, factors have a prime role in determining historical change capitalism ✔️ ✔️ an economic system based on the private ownership of wealth, which is invested and reinvested in order to produce profit bureaucracy ✔️ ✔️ a type of organization marked by a clear hierarchy of authority and the existence of written rules of procedure and staffed by full-time, salaried officials rationalization ✔️ ✔️ a concept used by Max Weber to refer to the process by which modes of precise calculation and organization, involving abstract rules and procedures, increasingly come to dominate the social world symbolic interactionism ✔️ ✔️ a theoretical approach in sociology developed by George Herbert Mead, which emphasizes the role of symbols and language as core elements of all human interaction... symbol ✔️ ✔️ one item used to stand for or represent another- as in the case of a flag, which symbolizes a nation... functionalism ✔️ ✔️ a theoretical perspective based on the notion that social events can best be explained in terms of the functions they perform- that is, the contributions they make to the continuity of a society... Manifest functions ✔️ ✔️ the functions of a type of social activity that are known to and intended by the individuals involved in the activity...
hypotheses ✔️ ✔️ ideas or guesses about a given state of affairs, put forward as bases fir empirical testing causation ✔️ ✔️ the causal influence of one factor, or variable, upon another correlation ✔️ ✔️ the regular relationship between two variables, often expressed in statistical terms variable ✔️ ✔️ a dimension along which an object, individual, or group may be categorized, such as income or height independent variable ✔️ ✔️ a variable, or factor, that causally affects another variable dependent variable ✔️ ✔️ a variable, or factor, that causally influenced by another variable controls ✔️ ✔️ statistical or experimental means of holding some variables constant in order to examine the causal influence of others research methods ✔️ ✔️ the diverse methods of investigation used to gather empirical material ethnography ✔️ ✔️ the firsthand study of people using participant observation or interviewing participant observation ✔️ ✔️ a method of research widely used in sociology and anthropology, in which the researcher takes part in the activities of the group or community being studied survey ✔️ ✔️ a method of sociological research in which questionnaires are administered to the population being studied population ✔️ ✔️ the people who are the focus of social research
pilot study ✔️ ✔️ a trial run in survey research sample ✔️ ✔️ a small proportion of a larger population sampling ✔️ ✔️ studying a proportion of individuals or cases from a larger population as representative of that population as a whole random sampling ✔️ ✔️ sampling method in which a sample is chosen so that every member of the population has the same probability of being included experiment ✔️ ✔️ a research method in which variables can be analyzed in a controlled and systematic way, either in an artificial situation constructed by the researcher or in naturally occurring settings life histories ✔️ ✔️ studies of the overall lives of individuals, often based on both self-reporting and documents such as letters comparative research ✔️ ✔️ research that compares one set of findings on one society with the same type of findings on another society triangulation ✔️ ✔️ the use of multiple research methods as a way of producing more reliable empirical data than is available from any single method reflexivity ✔️ ✔️ this describes the connections between knowledge and social life culture ✔️ ✔️ the values, norms, and material goods characteristic of a given group values ✔️ ✔️ ideas held by individuals or groups about what is desireable, proper, good, and bad
cultural relativism ✔️ ✔️ the practice of judging a society by its own standards cultural universals ✔️ ✔️ values or models of behavior shared by all human cultures language ✔️ ✔️ the primary vehicle of meaning and communication in a society, language is a system of symbols that represent objects and abstract thoughts marriage ✔️ ✔️ a socially approved sexual relationship between two individuals linguistic relativity hypothesis ✔️ ✔️ a hypothesis, based on the theories of Sapir and Whorf, that perceptions are relative to language signifier ✔️ ✔️ any vehicle of meaning and communication semiotics ✔️ ✔️ the study of the ways in which non-linguistic phenomena can generate meaning- as in the example of a traffic light hunting and gathering societies ✔️ ✔️ societies whose mode of subsistence is gained from hunting animals, fishing, and gathering edible plants pastoral societies ✔️ ✔️ societies whose subsistence derives from the rearing of domesticated animals agrarian societies ✔️ ✔️ societies whose means of subsistence are based on agricultural production industrialization ✔️ ✔️ the process of the machine production of goods
industrialized societies ✔️ ✔️ strongly developed nation-states in which the majority of the population work in factories or offices rather than in agriculture, and most people live in urban areas nation-states ✔️ ✔️ particular types of states, characteristic of the modern world, in which governments have sovereign power within defined territorial areas, and populations are citizens who know themselves to be part of single nations colonialism ✔️ ✔️ the process whereby Western nations established their rule in parts of the world away from their home territories developing world ✔️ ✔️ the less-developed societies, in which industrial production is either virtually nonexistent or only developed to a limited degree third world ✔️ ✔️ a term used during the Cold War to describe developing nations first world ✔️ ✔️ the group of nation-states that possesses mature industrialized economies based on capitalistic production second world ✔️ ✔️ before the 1898 democracy movement, this included the industrialized communist societies of Eastern Europe and the Soviet Union newly industrializing economics ✔️ ✔️ developing countries that over the past two or three decades have begun to develop a strong industrial base, such as Singapore and Hong Kong nationalism ✔️ ✔️ a set of beliefs and symbols expressing identification with a national community social reproduction ✔️ ✔️ the process of perpetuating values, norms, and social practices through socialization, which leads to structural community over time
agents of socialization ✔️ ✔️ groups of social contexts within which processes of socialization take place peer group ✔️ ✔️ a friendship group composed of individuals of similar age and social status age-grades ✔️ ✔️ the system found in small traditional cultures by which people belonging to a similar age-group are categorized together and hold similar rights and obligations mass media ✔️ ✔️ forms of communication, such as newspapers, magazines, radio, and television, designed to reach mass audiences social roles ✔️ ✔️ socially defined expectations of an individual in a given status, or social position identity ✔️ ✔️ the distinctive characteristics of a person's or group's character that relates to who they are and what is meaningful to them social identity ✔️ ✔️ the characteristics that are attributed to an individual by others self-identity ✔️ ✔️ the ongoing process of self-development and definition of our personal identity through which we formulate a unique sense of ourselves and our relationship to the world around us gender socialization ✔️ ✔️ the learning of gender roles through social factors such as schooling, the media, and family gender roles ✔️ ✔️ social roles assigned to each sex and labeled as masculine or feminine
social group ✔️ ✔️ a collection of people who regularly interact with one another on the basis of shared expectations concerning behavior and who share a sense of common identity social aggregate ✔️ ✔️ a simple collection of people who happen to be together in a particular place but do not significantly interact or identify with one another social category ✔️ ✔️ people who share a common characteristic but do not necessarily interact or identify with one another in-groups ✔️ ✔️ groups toward which one feels particular loyalty and respect- the groups to which "we" belong out-groups ✔️ ✔️ groups toward which one eels antagonism and contempt- "those people" primary groups ✔️ ✔️ groups that are characterized by intense emotional ties, face-to-face interaction, intimacy, and a strong, enduring sense of commitment secondary groups ✔️ ✔️ groups characterized by large size and by impersonal, fleeting relationships reference group ✔️ ✔️ a group that provides a standard for judging one's attitudes or behaviors dyad ✔️ ✔️ a group consisting of two people triad ✔️ ✔️ a group consisting of three people leader ✔️ ✔️ a person who is able to influence the behavior of other members of a group
surveillance society ✔️ ✔️ term referring to how information about our lives and activities is maintained by organization iron law of oligarchy ✔️ ✔️ a term coined by Weber's student Robert Michels meaning that large organizations tend toward centralization of power, making democracy difficult oligarchy ✔️ ✔️ rule by a small minority within an organization or society human resource management ✔️ ✔️ a style of management that regards a company's workforce as vital to its economic competitiveness corporate culture ✔️ ✔️ an organizational culture involving rituals, events, or traditions that are unique to a specific company information and communication technology ✔️ ✔️ forms of technology based on information processing and requiring microelectronic circuitry international governmental organization (IGO) ✔️ ✔️ an international orgnization established by treaties between governments for purposes of conducting business between the nations making up its membership international nongovernmental organization (INGO) ✔️ ✔️ an international organization established by agreements between the individuals or private organizations making up its membership social capital ✔️ ✔️ the social knowledge and connections that enable people to accomplish their goals and extend their influence deviance ✔️ ✔️ modes of action that do not conform to the norms or values held by most members of a group or society
deviant subculture ✔️ ✔️ a subculture whose members hold values that differ substantially from those of the majority sanction ✔️ ✔️ a mode of reward or punishment that reinforces socially expected forms of behavior laws ✔️ ✔️ rules of behavior established by a political authority and backed by state power crimes ✔️ ✔️ any actions that contravene the laws established by a political authority psychopaths ✔️ ✔️ specific personality types; such individuals lack the moral sense and concern for others held by most normal people differential association ✔️ ✔️ an interpretation of the development of criminal behavior proposed by Erwin H. Sutherland, according to whom criminal behavior is learned through association with others who regularly engage in crime labeling theory ✔️ ✔️ an approach to the study of deviance that suggests that people become 'deviant' because certain labels are attached to their behavior by political authorities and others primary deviation ✔️ ✔️ according to Edwin Lemert, the actions that cause others to label one as a deviant secondary deviation ✔️ ✔️ according to Edwin Lemert, following the act of primary deviation, occurs when an individual accepts the label of deviant and acts accordingly conflict theory ✔️ ✔️ argument that deviance is deliberately chosen and often political in nature
