The Impact of Forest Schools on Children's Resilience and Confidence, Schemes and Mind Maps of Psychology

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Impacts of Long Term Forest School Programmes on Children’s Resilience,

Confidence and Wellbeing

Contents

• ABSTRACT
• 1.0 INTRODUCTION
• 2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW
  • 2.1 PRINCIPLES OF FOREST SCHOOLS
  • 2.2 LEARNING APPROACHES IN FOREST SCHOOLS
  • 2.2.2 PLAY BASED LEARNING;
  • 2.2.3 PLACE BASED LEARNING
  • 2.2.4 STORY TELLING
  • 2.3 IMPACTS OF FOREST SCHOOL ON CHILDREN
  • 2.3.1. RESILIENCE
  • 2.3.2 STUDENT WELLBEING
  • 2.3.2.1 PROMOTING WELLBEING IN SCHOOLS USING POSITIVE EDUCATIONAL PRACTICES (PEPS)
  • 2.3.3 STUDENTS CONFIDENCE
• 3.0 METHODOLOGY
  • 3.1 RESEARCH OBJECTIVE
  • 3.1.1 RESEARCH APPROACH
• 4.0 RESULTS........................................................................................................................................................
  • 4.1 IMPACTS OF LONG TERM FOREST SCHOOL PROGRAMMES ON CHILDREN RESILIENCE..............................................................
  • 4.2 IMPACT OF LONG-­‐TERM FOREST SCHOOL PROGRAMMES ON CHILDREN CONFIDENCE
  • 4.3 IMPACT OF LONG TERM FOREST SCHOOL PROGRAM ON CHILDREN’S WELLBEING
• 5.0 DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS
  • REFERENCE LIST

1.0 Introduction

In the past two decades, Forest Schools have been gaining popularity in United Kingdom and developed economies. The Forest Schools model of programmes and mode of delivering pedagogical content to learners emerged from a Scandinavian approach to outdoor learning in the late 1950’s but has taken on a British context and is firmly embedded within that rich culture and longevity of practice of personal development in the outdoors and its educational consciousness within the British shores. Since then, Forest School programmes have spread across Europe, China, North America, Australia, South Africa, UAE, Russia, New Zealand and other Scandinavian countries. Forest School programmes are strongly inclined to traditional natural play, movement and fresh air^1. The programmes are founded on the philosophy of encouraging and inspiring individuals of all ages to enjoy the benefits provided by natural play, through outdoor experiences, which results to growth in self-confidence and independence^2. In essence, forest schools are founded on creative and solid learning principles, aimed at motivating both adults and children to develop a more sustainable future and enhancing academic performance at the same time^3. Involvement in engaging and inspiring activities in the outdoor environment provides ideal opportunity for learners to develop intrinsic motivation, social skills and better, controlled psychological balance. Research studies by Blackwell and Nawaz^4 , Taylor and Kuo^5 have demonstrated that Forest Schools promotes achievement in children of all ages who regularly (^1) T. Maynard, ‘Forest schools in Great Britain: an initial exploration’, Contemporary Issues In Early Childhood , (^2) S. Blackwell, ‘Forest schools; if you go down to the woods today,’ Horizon, 31, Autumn 2005, p 11. (^3) Ibid, p. (^4) S. Blackwell, and Nawaz, H. ‘Perceptions about Forest Schools: Encouraging and Promoting Archimedes Forest Schools’, Academic Journals , vol.9.no15, 2014, pp. 498 -­‐503. (^5) F. Taylor, and Kuo, F. E., ‘Children With Attention Deficits Concentrate Better After Walk In The Park,’ Journal of Attention Disorders Online First, volx., no.,x., 2008, pp1-­‐8.

participate in woodland activities with trained practitioners. Through controlled play and self directed learning in the woodlands, children becomes more knowledgeable about the natural environment, learn team building skills and cooperation with their peers and they also become more empowered to use their own initiative to solve individual challenges. Forest Schools are not buildings, institutions or organizations but local woodlands, green spaces, natural playgrounds or spaces where children spend at least a half a day on regular basis 6

. The programmes are characterised by regular and repeated access to the same natural space, and emergent, experiential, inquiry- oriented and play based learning^7. This approach provides the learners with opportunities to establish progressive relationship with the environment, the educator and peers. Thus, activities undertaken in the Forest Schools vary and influenced by both internal and external factors, such as the weather, season, interest of the children, the community, landscape, the tools used among other factors. In most cases, learners have to walk, even if it is a short distance, to their Forest School sites and the mere act of walking is a learning activity in itself as the children observe the woodlands for new changes and converse about different observations they make along the way 8 . At the site, the usual settings are required, although they are done in a different setup depending on the woodland, site, or stakeholder requirements. The activities are learner centred and are designed to address the diverse needs of the child. The educator sets small and achievable tasks, within the capabilities of each child, and collaborative activities such as games are incorporated to promote development of teamwork skills. To build self esteem and confidence of the learners, the instructor engages them in activities such as lighting fires hide and seek and other activities, which enhance the development of intra and interpersonal skills as well as improving on practical and intellectual abilities. The sessions are based on themes, such as exploration and nature investigations^9. Forest School programmes encompass all subjects and disciplines, and any given session, activity or experience involves science, maths, physical education, literature, art, among other (^6) S. Blackwell, ‘Forest schools; if you go down to the woods today,’ Horizon, 31, Autumn 2005, p 11 (^7) Z. MacEachren, ‘The Canadian Forest School movement,’ Learning Landscapes , vol.17, no.1, 2013, p 219. (^8) S. Blackwell, ‘Forest schools; if you go down to the woods today,’ Horizon, 31, Autumn 2005, p (^9) Ibid, p.

with an indelible memory of what they have learnt in the outdoors, and they share it with parents, guardians and other members of the community or society. This encourages communication, community involvement and participation in the learning process, which promotes the child’s self confidence further.

2.0 Literature Review

2.1 Principles of Forest Schools

The concept of Forest Schools is founded on the work of various educational theorists who investigated the role of play, nature and environment on development of positive learning outcomes in children. John Amos Comenius ( 1592 - 1670) postulated the importance of holistic learning in achievement of children, a concept that forms the basis of Forest school programmes. In his work, Comenius believed in development of positive child- teacher relationship characterised with love for the child to win the learner’s confidence and observation of nature and respecting its laws as the basis of ensuring successful learning. Moreover, Comenius advocated for development of school programmes that address the diverse needs and aptitudes of children as well as respecting their spontaneity and dignity. Comenius emphasised that children should study in nature, where he emphasised on learning through sensory stimulation and pictures rather than instructions^14. Locke’s theory of empiricism and scientific method has a major influence on Forest Schools programmes. Locke’s theory just like Comenius emphasise on the importance of sensory experience in learning, pupil interaction with the environment and learning through doing. Locke stressed on the importance of having a positive physical and social environment such as fresh air, play, recreation and exercises to promote learning and development in children 15

. Forest Schools programmes, just like Locke’s theory emphasise on enhancing the social and physical environment of the learner to promote learning. (^14) Western Oregon University, ‘Pioneers in Education’, http://www.wou.edu/~girodm/foundations/pioneers.pdf (accessed 10 June 2015) (^15) ibid

Piaget’s theory of cognitive psychology is founded on the importance of incorporating environmental exploration to facilitate cognitive development and learning in children. Piaget believed that as children explore the environment, they become architects of their own cognitive development^16. Although Piaget emphasised giving personalised instructions to students, he recognised the importance of setting an informal learning environment, where children could explore, experiment and manipulate objects to learn and discover about their environment. Forest school programmes incorporate these components by allowing unrestricted child play in the woodlands and emphasising on child directed activities Forest School philosophy incorporates Maria Montessori theory of learning, which places great emphasis on the influence of prepared environment on children’s learning. Maria Montessori(1870-1952) believed that children have an inner drive to work at what interests them, without the need of being ordered around by teachers or seeking rewards. Montessori curriculum emphasises on three major experiences and activities namely practical, sensory and formal skills and studies^17. To achieve these desired skills, the curriculum stresses repetitive exercises, movement and routine which are major components of Forest School programmes which set out boundaries of a physical as well as a social dimention.

2.2 Learning approaches in forest schools

Forest Schools approaches are child centred and they aim at developing the child holistically and transform their understanding of themselves, others and the world around them. The curriculum focuses on the following learning approaches; 2.2.1 Inquiry based emergent and experiential learning This approach is based on the premise that children are inherently born with curiosity to explore and experience their surrounding environment, inquire about the experiences and then learning by doing things on their own^18. While using this approach, the educator/instructor’s main role is to support the child’s explorations and activities in the natural setting to promote learning. Using (^16) ibid (^17) M.Montessori, The discovery of the child. New York, Ballantine Books, 1972, p. (^18) Ibid, p.

and protect it from undesirable elements of destruction. According to Sobel^23 , place based learning basically involves reintegration of the individual to his/her home ground and restoration of the essential links between the person and his/her place. In forest school program, place based learning is of critical importance as it promotes emotional connection between the learner and the environment, which is an important aspect of ensuring sustainable learning and positive environmental identity and practices. 2.2.4 Story Telling Story telling forms an integral part of Forest Schools learning because its programmes are child centred and are aimed at developing the physical, psychological and social elements of learners. Different types of narratives, such as legends, riddles, folktales and personal encounters are highly encouraged in many forms of nature schools including Forest Schools programmes. From a literature point of view, storytelling has been existence since time immemorial and it serves to teach, entertain, engage, warn, inform, counsel and stimulate critical thinking skills in learners. In the Forest School environment, oral narratives are important in helping learners articulate their emotions, describe their experiences promote their listening and attention skills in addition to stimulating their creativity. Ordinarily, storytelling is done face to face by one child at a time while the others stay still to listen. Children learn diverse skills from storytelling, such as developing self confidence, communication skills and ability to understand the order of events in a plot. Children also learn new vocabularies and how to use different words in their speech. Other important skills acquired through story telling include language and memory skills. Andrachuk et al 24 noted that when children recall their diverse experiences, they are able to remember their history which helps them boost their self esteem and promote their cognitive and psychological development. Story telling has been found to be a therapeutic and empowering (^23) D. Sobel (Ed.), Place-­‐based education: Connecting classrooms & communities. Great Barrington, MA: Orion Society, 2013, p. (^24) H. Andrachuk. et al. ‘Forest and nature school in Canada: A head, heart, hands approach to outdoor learning,’ http://www.forestschoolcanada.ca/wp-­‐content/themes/wlf/images/FSC-­‐Guide_web.pdf , 2014, (Accessed on 25 May 2015) p. 32

activity that helps learners face their fears and enhance their capacity to take risks^25. Children are also able to develop and practice empathy as they listen to different narratives. 2.2.5 Loose Parts Using loose parts is another important pedagogical approach used with Forest School learners. This technique basically involves assembling detachable, uniquely natural materials into different shapes and structures in the woodland setting. Since the use of loose materials does not involve following any illustrations, children are provided with opportunity to use their creativity effectively^26. In a Forest School setting, nature provides the richest range of loose materials ranging such as sticks, pebbles, seeds, soil, berries and cones among others. To support children using loose materials, it is important to supply them with the typical woodland tools and equipment such as mallets, knives, ropes, and buckets. For documentation purposes, the practitioner can provide them with pencils, paper, charcoal, natural dyes, paints and crayons.

2.3 Impacts of Forest Schools on children

Researchers have documented numerous benefits of outdoors learning to the children’s physical, intellectual and social development. These findings are of great significance, following revelations that children involvement in outdoor experiences has declined significantly in developed countries, with children in United States recording an average of less than half an hour of play time daily^27. In Britain, Maynard^28 reported that the decline in children outdoor play has been accompanied by a declining emphasis on play outside the class room setting within the educational institutions, especially in nursery classes. Some of the factors associated with (^25) Ibid,p. (^26) H. Andrachuk. et al. ‘Forest and nature school in Canada: A head, heart, hands approach to outdoor learning,’ http://www.forestschoolcanada.ca/wp-­‐content/themes/wlf/images/FSC-­‐Guide_web.pdf , 2014, (Accessed on 25 May 2015) p. (^27) J. Levi, Segal, L., Laurent, R., & Kohn, D, ‘ F as in fat: How Obesity Threatens America's Future: Trust for America's Health, Robert Wood Johnson Foundation,’http://healthyamericans.org/report/88/, 2011. (Accessed on 25 May 2015). (^28) T. Maynard, ‘Forest schools in Great Britain: an initial exploration’, Contemporary Issues In Early Childhood , vol.,8.,no.,4.2007, p. 321

movement also contributes positively to development of critical physical attributes such as stamina, agility, psycho-motor coordination and muscle strength. Maynard 35 found that free movement in children enables them to develop better control of their bodies, especially in relation to the development of more refined motor control. This skill is required to handle delicate movements such as manipulating a pencil while writing, staying calm and being attentive for longer periods. The wild and free natural space in the Forest Schools environment also enables the children to be creative in developing their own games of play, such as fantasy games, especially among young boys who fantasise playing superhero roles, such as chasing, running and mock fights in a real setting, so a more contextualised approach to learning ensues. The physical experiences undertaken in Forest School settings provides an ideal platform for satisfying our human need for thrill and challenge. In a research study examining the behaviour of children, Hinkley, Crawford, Salmon, Okely and Hesketh 36 found that children always seek physical challenges in their play, an observation attributed to the children’s need for extending their physical abilities and their independence. This observation is also linked to the children’s inclination to taking risks and eagerness to learn on how to deal with various hazards, which are understood to be important life skills. A number of research studies have been conducted relating to the effect of the natural environment on children’s resilience, confidence and wellbeing. However before analysing the research studies, it is important to examine the meaning of resilience, confidence and wellbeing in the context of children and the youth. 35 T. Maynard, ‘Forest schools in Great Britain: an initial exploration’, Contemporary Issues In Early Childhood , vol.,8.,no.,4.2007,p. 322 (^36) T. Hinkley, Crawford, D., Salmon, J., Okely, A. D., and Hesketh, K., ‘Preschool children and physical activity -­‐ A review of correlates’, American Journal of Preventive Medicine , vol. 34., no.5, 2008, pp. 435 -­‐441.

2.3.1. Resilience Resilience is the ability of an individual to adapt to change and stressful situations successfully, in a healthy and constructive manner 37

. Resilience does not necessarily mean that a person is not vulnerable to stress, but has the capacity to cope with the adverse events 38 . In human growth and development process, transition from childhood to adulthood present unique challenges to a significant number of children, while others make smooth transition without too many problems. For those who lack resilience to make a smooth transition to adulthood, some develop mental health problems that could have lasting effects on their adult lives^39. It is therefore important to equip children with adequate skills to enhance their resilience and make them more adaptable to the various challenges in life. Empirical research studies have demonstrated that resilience can be enhanced through a contact with the natural environment. A study conducted by Horseman^40 in a Forest School in the United Kingdom found that students who had low levels of resilience and emotional wellbeing improved their resilience and emotional fortitude after participating in the Forest School program. A child who initially cried repeatedly after a fall changed and started picking herself up and continued playing after participating in their schools Forest School program 41 . According to Cahill et al 42 , resilience is an acquired and adaptive process, which develops from the interaction between risks and defensive elements across different levels of an individual lived (^37) K. Oliver, Collin, P., Burns, J., and Nicholas, J., ‘Building Resilience in Young People through Meaningful Participation,’ Australian E-Journal for the Advancement of Mental Health, vol., 5., no., 1, 2006, p. (^38) Ibid,p. (^39) T. Maynard, ‘Forest schools in Great Britain: an initial exploration’, Contemporary Issues In Early Childhood , vol.,8.,no.,4.2007,p.330. (^40) L. Horseman, ‘We are going down to the woods today. case Study of a Forest School project with Carr Manor Primary School Nursery’, http://kindlingplayandtraining.co.uk/wp-content/uploads/2011/08/Forest-School-Case- Study-Carr-Manor.pdf, (accessed 10 June 2015) (^41) Ibid (^42) H. Cahill, Beadle,S., Farrelly, A., Forster, R., and Smith, K., ‘Building Resilience in Children And Young People: A Literature Review For The Department Of Education And Early Childhood Development. Melbourne Graduate School of Education,’http://www.education.vic.gov.au/Documents/about/department/resiliencelitreview.pdf, 2014, (Accessed on 29 May 2015)

resources, knowledge or skills ensuring the task is completed to the end anticipated as well as to a predetermined level of self-satisfaction. Connectedness is attained through working with others in teams and having a sense of belonging and positive relationship with adults and the peer group^50. Therefore for an individual to develop resilience, it is important to engage in tasks that are meaningful, to have control and autonomy in addition to feeling a sense of connection to one’s community. These elements are adequately provided for through the development of the long term Forests Schools program. Forest Schools programmes offer limitless opportunities for the development of resilience in children. For children to develop resilience, it is important to implement programmes that promote emotional, social, academic, cognitive, creative, physical and vocational competencies and those that encourage young children to enhance their self confidence, self esteem and self efficacy. The program should encourage children and young people to form positive relationships with other people, the surrounding natural environment and adults, and more widely, to include the educational setting as well as the local community. The program will promote character development by enhancing self-control and morality, in addition to nurturing caring and compassion to other people. For development of these attributes to take place, a favourable environment that fosters nurturing of meaningful and supportive relationships with others, while empowering the children, as well as communicating expectations for positive behaviour is essential. A research study conducted in United States on vulnerable children found a marked improvement on their resilience after they participated in a forest education program^51. The children reported a 27% increase in their understanding of scientific concepts, improved teamwork and cooperation with peers and adults, and enhanced conflict resolution skills. In addition the children demonstrated an improvement in their self esteem, problem solving skills, environmental awareness and increased motivation to learn. 50 K. Oliver, Collin, P., Burns, J., and Nicholas, J., ‘Building Resilience in Young People through Meaningful Participation,’ Australian E-­‐Journal for the Advancement of Mental Health, vol., 5., no., 1, 2006, p. (^51) American Institutes for Research , Effects of Outdoor education Programmes for Children in California , Palo Alto, Ca: American Institutes for Research, 2005.p. 25-­‐63.

For an educational program to build resilience in children and the youth, Oliver et al^52 opined that it should be structured in a manner that promotes social and cognitive competency in addition to enhancing social connectedness and participation. Social competency entails a variety of interpersonal skills that assist children and young people to properly regulate and control their actions, thoughts and feelings to achieve social and personal objectives 53

. Social competency is achieved when an individual becomes capable of applying interpersonal skills such as communication and conflict resolution mechanisms in any given social context. This entails the ability to recognise and interpret particular social cues precisely and learn how to respond appropriately to interpersonal challenges. Cognitive competency involves development of skills such as decision making, solving problems, setting goals and planning^54 and evidence around child development shows that young people gain adaptive skills through experience rather than through instruction. A study conducted by Wells 55 found that exposure to natural environments increased cognitive competence of learners and improved their concentration. Acquisition of cognitive skills plays a critical role in enhancing resilience of a child and young people even as they make their transition to adulthood. Children and young people with cognitive competence are self driven and are capable of planning and directing their efforts to achieve personal goals. Developing social connectedness and participation is another critical approach of developing resilience in children and young people. This approach is founded on the premise that promoting (^52) K. Oliver, Collin, P., Burns, J., and Nicholas, J., ‘Building Resilience in Young People through Meaningful Participation,’ Australian E-­‐Journal for the Advancement of Mental Health, vol., 5., no., 1, 2006, p. 4 (^53) F. R.,Catalano, Hawkins, J.D., Berglund, M.L., Pollard, J.A., and Arthur, M.W, ‘Prevention science and positive youth development: Competitive or cooperative frameworks?’ Journal of Adolescent Health, no.31, 2002, p. 240. (^54) G.K. Oliver, Collin, P., Burns, J., and Nicholas, J., ‘Building Resilience in Young People through Meaningful Participation,’ Australian E-­‐Journal for the Advancement of Mental Health, vol., 5., no., 1, 2006, p. (^55) M.N. Wells, and Evans, W., ‘Nearby nature: a Buffer of Life Stress among rural Children’, Environment and Behavior, vol.35, no.3, 2003, p.3 2 1.

in life experiences^59. Cahill argues that stable wellbeing is achieved when individuals have relevant psychological, social and physical resources required to face a particular problem or challenge. Thus, when people or learners have greater challenges than the available resources, their wellbeing diminishes. In education, wellbeing is both a product and a process which enables the learner to progress towards attaining the anticipated normal parameters of developmental as well as academic outcomes^60. At Forest Schools, programmes are structured in a manner that recognises that learners may require additional support as well as their innate skills to draw upon necessary resources to maintain their wellbeing, especially when they encounter additional challenges from inside or outside the school environment. Research studies have demonstrated that wellbeing can be enhanced or influenced by modifying or introducing a number of varying opportunities into the learning program. A research study conducted by Awartini, Whitman and Gordon 61 sought to establish what influences learners’ wellbeing both within and outside school. From the research study, the learners listed a number of activities that influence their wellbeing, namely physical health, physical and emotional safety, confidence in their capabilities, emotional wellbeing, pleasure and joy in learning, in addition to having a satisfying relationship with peers and other significant people. Other factors influencing learners’ wellbeing includes the presence or lack of inner strength and spirit or self confidence, a sense of connection with life and community in addition to overall satisfaction with life. Childrens’ wellbeing cannot be addressed fully without including the state of their mental health. A growing number of research studies show that students across the world are recording an (^59) H. Cahill, Beadle,S., Farrelly, A., Forster, R., and Smith, K., ‘Building Resilience in Children And Young People: A Literature Review For The Department Of Education And Early Childhood Development. Melbourne Graduate School of Education,’http://www.education.vic.gov.au/Documents/about/department/resiliencelitreview.pdf, 2014, (Accessed on 29 May 2015) (^60) Ibid,p. (^61) M. Awartani, Whitman,C.V., and Gordon,J., ‘Developing instruments to capture youngpeople’s perception of how school as a learning environment affects their wellbeing,’ European Journal of Education , vol. 43, no.1,2008,pp. 51 -­‐70.

increasing number of mental health disorders, such as stress, depression, attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), hyperactivity, panic attacks and other mental illnesses. The prevalence of mental health issues definitely undermines the child’s capability to deal with the normal demands of life, slows their growth and development as well as their resilience, which in turn lowers participation and levels of connectedness to the education setting as well as to the local community 62

. Forest Schools offers opportunities of reducing the impacts of mental illness amongst children through their engagement in and with nature. The research study conducted by Taylor and Kuo^63 showed that students with ADHD demonstrated an improved level of concentration after walking in a green park. Childrens’ wellbeing and resilience are closely interrelated. Although both attributes are found within every individual, they are influenced greatly by internal and external factors. According to Cahil et al 64 , individual resilience is an interaction between the internal characteristics of the person and the external factors in the environment. Recognising the critical role that external environment plays in influencing resilience and wellbeing of an individual enables educators, parents, and other stakeholders devise effective interventions of changing the student’s environment to achieve desired outcomes. Through the development of the Forest School program, this approach is of critical significance as it emphasises the importance of developing a holistic educational program that involves the learners, the surrounding environment, parents and the educational community. Forest Schools offer an ideal environment for fostering children’s’ development, because it offers learners the opportunity to spend a considerable portion of their educational lifetime in the natural setting. The role of schools in building resilience and wellbeing of learners has been (^62) B. Bernard, Resiliency : What we have learnt. San Francisco, CA, West Ed, 2004. (^63) F. Taylor, and Kuo, F. E., ‘Children With Attention Deficits Concentrate Better After Walk In The Park,’ Journal of Attention Disorders Online First, volx., no.,x., 2008, pp1-­‐8. (^64) H. Cahill, Beadle,S., Farrelly, A., Forster, R., and Smith, K., ‘Building Resilience in Children And Young People: A Literature Review For The Department Of Education And Early Childhood Development. Melbourne Graduate School of Education,’http://www.education.vic.gov.au/Documents/about/department/resiliencelitreview.pdf, 2014, (Accessed on 29 May 2015) p.