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Anatomy and Physiology: Understanding the Human Body's Structure and Function, Exams of Physiology

Clayton State UniversityPhysiology

An excerpt from a textbook chapter on anatomy and physiology. It covers the fundamental concepts of anatomy and physiology, including the definition of each field, the levels of structural organization, life processes, homeostasis, and the components of feedback systems. The text also introduces anatomical terminology and medical imaging techniques.

Typology: Exams

Pre 2010

Uploaded on 08/04/2009

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BIOL 1151 ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY
Chapter 1
Objectives
Define anatomy and physiology
Describe the levels of structural organization
Life processes of human body
Define homeostasis
Describe the components of feedback system
Anatomical terminology
Medical imaging
An Introduction to the Human Body
•Anatomy
–science of structure
–relationships revealed by dissection (cutting apart)
–imaging techniques
•Physiology
–science of body functions
–normal adult physiology studied in this text
–some genetic variations described
•Subdivisions of A & P = Table 1.1
Clinical Observational Techniques
•Palpation
–feel body surface with hands
•pulses and breathing rates
•Auscultation
–listen to body sounds with stethoscope
•abnormal fluid in lungs
•Percussion
–tap on body surface and listen to echo
•air in intestines
Levels of Organization
•Chemical
•Cellular
•Tissue
•Organs
•System Level
•Organismic Level
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BIOL 1151 ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY

Chapter 1

Objectives Define anatomy and physiology Describe the levels of structural organization Life processes of human body Define homeostasis Describe the components of feedback system Anatomical terminology Medical imaging An Introduction to the Human Body

• Anatomy

– science of structure

– relationships revealed by dissection (cutting apart)

– imaging techniques

• Physiology

– science of body functions

– normal adult physiology studied in this text

– some genetic variations described

• Subdivisions of A & P = Table 1.

Clinical Observational Techniques

• Palpation

– feel body surface with hands

• pulses and breathing rates

• Auscultation

– listen to body sounds with stethoscope

• abnormal fluid in lungs

• Percussion

– tap on body surface and listen to echo

• air in intestines

Levels of Organization

• Chemical

• Cellular

• Tissue

• Organs

• System Level

• Organismic Level

– specialization of cells for a specific function

– stem cells give rise to cells that specialize

• Reproduction

– formation of new cells or new individuals

Autopsy

• Postmortem examination of body by dissection

• Purpose

– confirm or determine cause of death

– support findings of other tests

– provide information on effects of drug usage

– educate healthcare students

– reveal congenital defects

Homeostatis

• Maintaining the internal environment within physiological limits

• First described by French physiologist,

• Process named by Walter Cannon, 1871-

• Example

– blood glucose level is kept within narrow range 70-110/100ml

Homeostasis of Body Fluids

• Delineation of fluid compartments

– intracellular fluid (ICF) = within cells

– extracellular fluid (ECF) = outside cells

  • intercellular fluid = tissue fluid = interstitial fluid
  • plasma = fluid portion of blood

• Composition of fluids change as

substances move between compartments

– nutrients, oxygen, ions and wastes move in both directions across capillary walls

Control of Homeostasis

• Homeostasis is continually being disrupted by

– external stimuli or

  • intense heat, cold , and lack of oxygen

– internal stimuli

  • psychological stresses
  • exercise
  • Disruptions are usually mild & temporary
  • If homeostasis is not maintained, death may result Neural and Endocrine Controls
  • Process of maintaining a controlled condition
  • sensory receptors detect change in a monitored variable
  • nervous system and/or endocrine system responds
  • Example of control of blood gas level
  • exercise increases blood CO2 levels
  • sensory receptors detect change
  • nervous system increases heart and breathing rates to remove excess CO
  • adrenal gland releases epinephrine to increase heart and breathing rates Components of Feedback Loop
  • Receptor
  • monitors a controlled condition
  • Control center
  • determines next action
  • Effector
  • receives directions from the control center
  • produces a response that changes the controlled condition Negative & Positive Feedback Loops
  • Negative feedback loop
  • original stimulus reversed
  • most feedback systems in the body are negative
  • used for conditions that need frequent adjustment
  • body temperature, blood sugar levels, blood pressure
  • Positive feedback loop
  • original stimulus intensified
  • seen during normal childbirth Homeostasis of Blood Pressure
  • Pressure receptors in walls of certain arteries detect an increase in BP
  • Blood Pressure = force of blood on walls of vessels
  • Brain receives input and signals heart and blood vessels
  • Heart rate slows and arterioles dilate (increase in diameter)
  • BP returns to normal Positive Feedback during Childbirth

Sagittal Plane

• Sagittal plane

– divides the body or an organ into left and right sides

• Midsagittal plane

– produces equal halves

• Parasagittal plane

– produces unequal sides (“unequal halves”)

Other Planes and Sections

• Frontal or coronal plane (pink)

  • divides the body or an organ into front (anterior) and back (posterior) portions

• Transverse(cross-sectional) or horizontal plane (green/teal)

  • divides the body or an organ into upper (superior) or lower (inferior) portions

• Oblique plane

  • some combination of 2 other planes Planes and Sections of the Brain (3-D anatomical relationships revealed)

• Horizontal Plane

• Frontal Plane

• Midsagittal Plane

Major Directional Terms

  • See Definitions page 14 Superior or Inferior

• Superior

– towards the head

– The eyes are superior to the mouth.

• Inferior

– away from the head

– The stomach is inferior to the heart.

Dorsal or Ventral

• Dorsal or Posterior

– at the back of the body

– The brain is posterior to the forehead.

• Ventral or Anterior

– at the front of the body

– The sternum is anterior to the heart.

Medial and Lateral

  • Medial
  • nearer to the midline of the body
  • The heart lies medial to the lungs.
  • Lateral
  • farther from the midline of the body
  • The thumb is on the lateral side of the hand.

Serous Membranes

• Thin slippery membrane lines body cavities not open to the outside

– parietal layer lines walls of cavities

– visceral layer covers viscera within the cavities

• Serous fluid reduces friction

Pleural & Pericardial Cavities

• Visceral pleura clings to surface of lungs --- Parietal pleura lines chest wall

• Visceral pericardium covers heart --- Parietal pericardium lines pericardial sac

Peritoneum

• Visceral peritoneum -- serous membrane that covers the abdominal viscera

• Parietal peritoneum --- serous membrane that lines the abdominal wall

Abdominopelvic Regions & Quadrants

• Describe locations of organs or source of pain

• Tic-tac-toe grid or intersecting lines through navel

Medical Imaging

• Allows visualization of structures without surgery

• Useful for confirmation of diagnosis

• Examples of imaging techniques

Conventional Radiography

• A single burst of xrays

• Produces 2-D image on film

• Known as radiography or xray

• Poor resolution of soft tissues

• Major use is osteology

Computed Tomography (CT Scan)

• Moving x-ray beam

• Image produced on a video monitor of a cross-section through body

• Computer generated image reveals more soft tissue detail

  • kidney & gallstones

• Multiple scans used to build 3D views

Digital Subtraction Angiography (DSA)

• Radiopaque material injected into blood vessels

• Before and after images compared with a computer program

• Image of blood vessel is shown on a monitor

Ultrasound (US)

  • High-frequency sound waves emitted by hand-held device
  • Safe, noninvasive & painless
  • Image or sonogram is displayed on video monitor
  • Used for fetal ultrasound and examination of pelvic & abdominal organs, heart and blood flow through blood vessels Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI)
  • Body exposed to high-energy magnetic field
  • Protons align themselves relative to magnetic field
  • Pulse of radiowaves used to generate an image on video monitor
  • Can not use on patient with metal in their body
  • Reveals fine detail within soft tissues Positron Emission Tomography (PET)
  • Substance that emits positively charged particles is injected into body
  • Collision with negatively charged electrons in tissues releases gamma rays
  • Camera detects gamma rays & computer generates image displayed on monitor