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GCSE Psychology. Paper 1. Cognition and behaviour. Revision guide ... https://learndojo.org/aqa/gcse-psychology-revision/ (A website that ...
Typology: Exams
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EXAM DATES
TH
RD
EXAM TIPS
EXAM TIPS
VISUAL – Storing info
based on the way it
looks (i.e. the colour of
your dog)
ACOUSTIC – Storing
info based on the way
it sounds (i.e. what
noise your dog makes)
SEMAN T IC – Storing
info based on its
meaning (i.e. knowing
what the word dog
means)
SHORT-TERM – holding a
limited amount info for
approximately 18-30 seconds
LONG TERM – holding info
for up to a lifetime
RECOG-NITION –
CUED RECALL –
FREE RECALL –
BADDELEY (1966) - ENCODING
AO1 DESCRIPTION AO3 EVALUATION
A
To see how information is coded in STM and
LTM. We cannot say for sure that other people would
have acted in the same way during this study.
Baddeley used students and therefore we cannot
generalise the findings to the rest of the
population – especially people who aren't students.
this is a disadvantage because we are not able to
apply the findings to real life.
M
He gave different lists of words to groups
of participants to remember:
sounded similar (cat, cab, can)
sounded different (pit, few, cow)
with similar meaning (great, large, big)
words with different meanings (good,
huge, hot)
Participants were shown the original words
and asked to recall them in the correct
order.
Participants only took part in one condition of the
experiment rather than several. This is an
advantage because taking part in several conditions
can mean the participant becomes bored or tired,
leading to inaccurate results. The participant also
might guess what the study is aiming to do and
show demand characteristics – acting in a way to
please the researcher.
R
When they had to recall immediately (STM
recall), they tended to perform worse with
acoustically similar words.
When they had to recall after 20 minutes
(LTM recall), they tended to perform worse
with semantically similar words.
The experiment took place in a lab setting which
was unnatural for participants. Being in a different
environment might have made them feel nervous or
under pressure and could have lead to inaccurate
results. We can say this study lacks ecological
validity and it is therefore a disadvantage as the
results might be inaccurate. C
This suggests that information is coded
acoustically in STM and semantically in
LTM.
MULTI-STORE MODEL
STRENGTHS WEAKNESSES
A case study supports the theory of the MSM.
HM suffered from severe epilepsy and so he
underwent brain surgery to relieve his symptoms.
The procedure went wrong and when he woke up,
he was unable to form new memories. He was
unable to store memories into long-term memory
nor access any of his long-term memories. This
supports the MSM because it shows us that the
two memory stores must be different and unitary,
otherwise they would have both been damaged.
CA case study weakens the theory of the MSM.
KF had a motorbike accident and his short-term
memory was damaged. According to the MSM, KF
shouldn’t be able to access any of his short-term
memory if it was damaged. However, KF was able
to access visual information from his short-term
memory. This weakens the theory as it shows that
the short-term memory store can’t be a single
unit otherwise it would have all been damaged in
his accident. The MSM fails to explain why KF can
remember visual information.
The MSM has been useful in helping students to
revise for exams. The MSM states that we can
get information to enter our long-term memory by
rehearsing it. This has useful applications as
students can now repeat information over and
over in order for it to enter their long-term
memory. This is a strength as it shows how the
MSM has been useful in real life situations.
A weakness of the MSM is that is fails to explain
how we can manipulate information in our short-
term memory. Other researchers said the MSM
was too simple and therefore came up with their
own idea. The WMM states that information in
our short—term memory is directed to other
systems in order to be manipulated. This is a
weakness of the MSM as it fails to explain what
another theory can explain.
Sensory store STM LTM
Coding Depends on stimulus Acoustically Semantically
Capacity Very limited 5 - 9 items Unlimited
Duration Less than 0.5 sec 18 - 30 seconds Unlimited
EPISODIC
SEMANTIC
PROCEDURAL
TYPES OF LONG-TERM MEMORY
STRENGTHS
People who suffer from loss of memory due
to brain damage lose only certain kinds of
memory. An example of this is Clive Wearing.
He developed an infection in his brain that
meant he lost other types of memory whilst
his procedural memory remained intact. This
is a strength because it shows the types of
long-term memories are separate. If they
weren’t, all of Clive’s memory would have been
destroyed but that isn’t the case. This is an
example of supporting research.
Brain scans have shown separate locations in
the brain for each of the three types of
memory. Researchers have found that
episodic memory is associated with the right
prefrontal area, semantic memory is
associated with the left prefrontal area and
procedural memory is associated with the
motor area. This is a strength because it
shows that the types of long-term memories
are separate. If the memories were all in the
same area of the brain, it would be difficult
to say there are different types. This is an
example of supporting research.
WEAKNESSES
There isn’t a clear difference between
episodic and semantic memories. Most of our
memories could actually be classed as a
combination of episodic and semantic ones.
For example, your knowledge (semantic
memory) of your favourite band is closely
linked to your experiences of seeing them
perform (episodic memory). This is a
weakness because it suggests that the type
of long-term memories have been over
simplified. It doesn’t provide a clear
distinction between the different types,
especially semantic and episodic memories.
BARTLETT (1932) – RECONSTRUCTIVE MEMORY
AO1 DESCRIPTION AO3 EVALUATION
A
to investigate how memories are reconstructed
when people are asked to recall a story they
have been told.
We cannot say for sure that other people would
have acted in the same way during this study.
Bartlett used students and therefore we cannot
generalise the findings to the rest of the
population – especially people who aren't
students. this is a disadvantage because we are
not able to apply the findings to real life.
M
In order to investigate this, Bartlett used 20
people from a university in the UK. He told
them a story (The War of the Ghosts) and then
asked them to recall it 15 minutes later to
another participant. This then repeated itself,
almost like a game of Chinese whispers.
Participants were then asked to recall the story
after a few days, weeks, months and years.
The experiment took place in a lab setting which
was unnatural for participants. Being in a
different environment might have made them
feel nervous or under pressure and could have
lead to inaccurate results. We can say this study
lacks ecological validity and it is therefore a
disadvantage as the results might be inaccurate.
R
Participants remembered fragments of the
story and then retold it with small changes,
based on what they expect from a social
situation. The story became shorter and some
phrases were changed based on the
participants’ cultures.
Students were found to have altered the story
so it fit into their own experiences and culture.
For example instead of canoes, students
recalled the mode of transport being cars and
weapons as guns instead of bow and arrows.
Participants took part in several tests during the
experiment rather than just one. This is a
disadvantage because taking part in several
conditions can mean the participant becomes
bored or tired, leading to inaccurate results. The
participant also might guess what the study is
aiming to do and show demand characteristics –
acting in a way to please the researcher.
C
People remember fragments of memories and
reconstruct the memory based on what they
expect to happen, based on their social
expectations
KEY STUDY - IMPORTANT
KEY STUDY - IMPORTANT
EXAM PRACTICE #
memory [2 marks]
study [4 marks]
reconstructive memory study [9 marks]
BARTLETT – RECONSTRUCTIVE MEMORY THEORY
AO1 DESCRIPTION AO3 EVALUATION
The reconstructive memory theory is concerned with
what happens when information is stored and
retrieved from memory.
Some people think memory is like a DVD where we can
mentally play back events and recall them exactly the
way they happened, however, this is not the case.
We tend to try and reconstruct memories on the basis
of what we think probably happened, what usually
happens, or what must have happened. Bartlett said
that we store fragments of information and when we
need to recall it, we piece these fragments together
to make sense. Sometimes elements may be missing
which is when we ‘fill in the gaps’, leading to an
inaccurate memory.
Individuals use schemas (packets of information to
help understand the world based upon previous
experience) to try and make sense of new information.
For example, if we saw a car crash and the police
interviewed us, we may tell them we are sure that we
saw a lot of broken glass on the road after the
accident (even though there may not have been any!).
The reason for such an inaccurate memory may be
that we thought that that’s what usually/probably
happens when two cars crash based upon previous
experience.
The theory of reconstructive memory has a
wide range of supporting evidence. For
example, Bartlett’s War of the Ghosts study
found that people do indeed reconstruct
their memories based on what they think
should have happened or probably would have
happened
The theory of reconstructive memory
explains how memories can change but it fails
to explain how memories are stored and
retrieved, among other things. A theory that
does explain these processes is the multi-
store model of memory. This is a
disadvantage for the theory of
reconstructive memory as it fails to explain
these basic memory processes.
Bartlett conducted research that was
investigating his own theory. We could say
that his study may not be credible as he
conducted it himself. He may have adjusted
the results to suit his theory and therefore
we cannot rely on the study too much.
EXAM PRACTICE #
described the incident differently. Ann said the incident happened in a different order
than Martyn recalled. She remembered the robber wearing different clothes to what
Martyn recalled.
Use your knowledge of the theory of reconstructive memory to explain why Ann and
Martyn have different memories of the same event. [6 marks]
GODDEN AND BADDELEY (1975)
AO1 DESCRIPTION AO3 EVALUATION
A
The research only uses 18 participants and
therefore it is really difficult to be able to
generalise the findings to the wider population.
We can’t really say that the actions of 18 people
is similar to the actions of everyone else. This is
a weakness of the study.
M
Research into the impact of context on the
accuracy of memory has helped the police when
they are interviewing witnesses. The police can
take the witness back to the scene of the crime
to refresh their memory of what happened.
R
The study was a repeated measures design as
participants took part in all conditions (all 6 word
lists). This could have led to participants
becoming bored and tired of the research
meaning that the results have a possibility of
being inaccurate.
C
EXAM PRACTICE #
marks]
impacts the accuracy of memory. [4 marks]
CPAGETT 18/
LOFTUS AND PICKRELL (1995)
AO1 DESCRIPTION AO3 EVALUATION
A
To see if false memories could be created in
participants through suggestion in order to test the
existence of repressed and false memories.
The study used 21 females and only 3
males. This means that the study can be
criticised for not representing males and
therefore the results cannot be
generalised to males.
M
The study included 24 participants (3 males and 21
females) ranging in age from 18 to 53. For each
participant, a relative was also contacted. The
participants were given 4 short stories about their
childhood events that had been obtained from
relatives. 3 of the stories were true and one of them
was false. The false story was about getting lost in a
shopping mall and being rescued by an elderly woman.
The participants were asked to read each story and
write down what they remembered about each one. A
week later, participants were debriefed.
Research into false memories has shown
us how people may remember things that
may not have actually happened. This has
influenced the court system in the UK as
eyewitness testimonies are not primarily
used anymore. This shows how useful the
research has been and is therefore a
strength.
R
6 of the participants (25%) recalled the false story
fully or partially.
This study involved planting false
memories into people’s minds and the
false memory used in this study was quite
traumatic. This could have caused
significant harm and distress to the
participants and therefore is a weakness
of the study
C
This research suggests that the simple act of
imagining an event has the potential of creating and
implanting a false memory in a person. Even though
only a small number (25%) believe the false memory
was true, it is still surprising to see how false
memories can be planted.
EXAM PRACTICE #
memory. [2 marks]
marks]
café. The victim, called Debbie, identified him as stealing her handbag and picked him
out from a line-up. He had an alibi and couldn’t have done it as he was out of the
country working. The victim admitted she had seen a picture of Mark in a magazine she
was reading before her handbag was stolen.
Outline what is meant by false memory and how it affected the accuracy of Debbie’s
memory of the theft of her handbag. [4 marks]
KEYWORD DEFINITION
LONG-TERM
MEMORY
EPISODIC
MEMORY
SEMANTIC
MEMORY
PROCEDURAL
MEMORY
PRIMACY EFFECT
RECENCY EFFECT
SERIAL POSITION
EFFECT
RECONSTRUCTIVE
MEMORY
INTERFERENCE
PROACTIVE
INTERFERENCE
RETROACTIVE
INTERFERENCE
CONTEXT
FALSE MEMORIES
# Content
1 Sensations and perception
2 Depth cues
3 Visual illusions
4 Gibson’s direct theory of perception (AO1 + AO3)
5 Gregory’s constructive theory of perception (AO1 + AO3)
6 Factors affecting perception: Culture
7 Factors affecting perception: Emotions
8 Factors affecting perception: Motivation: Gilchrist and Nesberg
9
Factors affecting perception: Perceptual set and expectation:
Bruner and Minturn
TOPIC 2 - PERCEPTION
What do I need to know for the perception topic?