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Fixation of the Doubt: Difference between Belief and Doubt | PHIL 201, Study notes of Introduction to Philosophy

Pierce, Popper, Kuhn, Appiah, Foucault, Shankara, Valadez, Borges Material Type: Notes; Professor: Roy; Class: WORLD WISDOM TRADITIONS; Subject: Philosophy; University: Ramapo College of New Jersey; Term: Fall 2010;

Typology: Study notes

2009/2010

Uploaded on 12/26/2010

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-Pierce p.364
-Popper p.373
-Kuhn p.379
-Appiah p.393
-Foucault p.401
-Shankara p.431
-Valadez p.447
-Borges p.453
PIERCE
- The Fixation of Belief difference between belief & doubt
oWhen we try to determine what is true, we tend to have this “irritation of doubt”
oWe satisfy this instability of belief by converging upon an opinion, removing the “irritation of
doubt” by forming fixed beliefs from which successful habits of action may have formed from
oThere are various methods of fixing beliefs:
1. Method of tenacity
- People ignore what they do not want to hear or feel that others’ opinions are more valid and feel less
confident in his belief
- To prevent influence of others’ opinions we would have to become “hermits”
- The problem with this method is how to fix beliefs within the community not only within each
individual
2. Method of Authority
- Society such as government proposes “truths” that adhere to their interests rather than the integrity of
logic
- For instance, practiced by Communists in which however they think is normal thinking
- This authority leads also to logical misjudgment
3. Method of A Priori
- This method is arrived by agreeable reason
- Is defined by Pierce “as one is inclined to think”
- This method is distinguished among the prior 2 methods for that this is considered to be more
intellectual; however, this method can also be inclined to judge each other wrong
- Therefore, this method, as well, is logically undependable
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  • Pierce p.
  • Popper p.
  • Kuhn p.
  • Appiah p.
  • Foucault p.
  • Shankara p.
  • Valadez p.
  • Borges p. PIERCE
  • The Fixation of Belief  difference between belief & doubt o When we try to determine what is true, we tend to have this “irritation of doubt” o We satisfy this instability of belief by converging upon an opinion, removing the “irritation of doubt” by forming fixed beliefs from which successful habits of action may have formed from o There are various methods of fixing beliefs:
  1. Method of tenacity
  • People ignore what they do not want to hear or feel that others’ opinions are more valid and feel less confident in his belief
  • To prevent influence of others’ opinions we would have to become “hermits”
  • The problem with this method is how to fix beliefs within the community not only within each individual
  1. Method of Authority
  • Society such as government proposes “truths” that adhere to their interests rather than the integrity of logic
  • For instance, practiced by Communists in which however they think is normal thinking
  • This authority leads also to logical misjudgment
  1. Method of A Priori
  • This method is arrived by agreeable reason
  • Is defined by Pierce “as one is inclined to think”
  • This method is distinguished among the prior 2 methods for that this is considered to be more intellectual; however, this method can also be inclined to judge each other wrong
  • Therefore, this method, as well, is logically undependable

** These 3 methods are dismissed by Pierce, instead he says that the scientific method will lead us to the true conclusion because this method has not lead us to doubt it.

  1. The Scientific Method:
    • We find it among all methods of fixing beliefs that the scientific method is pragmatic by reason & is more reliable
    • Realities independent of our opinions still affect our senses, so laws of perception allow us to determine reality as it actually is.
    • Experience of the method has not lead us to doubt it
    • Yet, this method still isn’t perfect HAGEL
  • Hagel writes against Kant (we can only go by its appearance) o A priori are things you can figure out inside an office & not outside of world
  • Hagel’s rationality is actually subjective
  • “First….knowledge is a medium/instrument…Absolute…?” POPPER
  • He wants to disprove & accept what we don’t know
  • A “conjecture” is a hypothesis
  • A “refutation” is to prove something wrong
  • Popper suggested that all scientific theories are by nature “conjectures” [hypotheses] & are basically erroneous, and that “refutation” [denying ] to old theories is the supreme process of scientific discovery o Should any new theory survive more of such refutations [proving that the theories are wrong], it would have a higher credibility & therefore is closer to truth SHANKARA
  • Ultimate reality is spelled out by modern authority as: hard sciences
  • Ultimate reality in Hinduism is: the Vedas
  • How do we get to Atman? o Remove coverings

o Principle God  was a “He-She”

  • Cosmic responsibility o We are responsible to keep together by rituals as human sacrifices o Involved with cannibalism o Hernan says Aztecs don’t know their true God & therefore it is not worth keeping this civilization  He annihilated them
  • Cosmos: is organization of the universe
  • What’s real for Aztec of Mayan o There is an interconnection between them & the Earth BORGES
  • Borges has woven a psychological tale of desire and ultimate recognition of an undefined reality, one that is marred by projected illusions.
  • it is circular, a dream within a dream, where none of the characters are veritably real,' as revealed by fire, both a symbol of destruction and rebirth.
  • Fire, with its power to destroy all life, reducing it to unidentifiable cinders, is the only natural element that with its destruction defines the borders of reality.
  • A person who is not burned by the fire must not be real, but rather a mere illusion of reality. o This recognition is both a relief, an escape from the clutches of mortality, and a humiliation, a loss of human identity.
  • This line between awake and asleep can be seen as two worlds: o the real world, reined over by the five senses, o and the dream world, where the mind manifests only a semblance of reality.
  • Immortality used in this context means that he is an idea that can persist through fire's flames, where real flesh and bone cannot.
  • The story cycles back on itself in that the son the wizard imagined will in the same encounter discover his own non-existence as a real man.
  • In the wizard's discovery that he himself is an illusion, he both mourns the loss of his humanity, yet feels a tinge of relief. o He has no identity as a human being, but neither will he ever face the unknown, inevitable fear of death.
  • *Reality is nothing but a human construction o Everything is therefore manmade o What a person tells you is in context of his environment KUHN
  • paradigm: well thought theory we take for granted amongst other theories o e.g. a geocentric view of the world by Ptolemy o then, Newtonian paradigm [1607-1905]  took church 200 years to accept…Descartes & Newton o Einsteinian Model on 2 papers & Neil Bohr [1905-]
  • One paradigm failed; all made contribution to Newton’s heliocentric theory o Heliocentric: Einstein says no triangles or straight lines, but curves
  • “Paradigm shifts”: aka Revolution => theories change o In government where topples & someone completely different takes over
  • If we have a paradigm shift, how can we find what is successful? o In what sense does it show scientific process? Paradigms of Physics

o Religion & science in African tradition

  • Religion & science merge o The grainery [the container for grain] feel because of termites o Says that there is a spirit in the man who was injured
  • spirit is not visible, spiritual entity  no reason to reject because….?
  • African people use spirits as a theoretical entities o Pay attention to what they are doing & it opens up to how they think
  • **After these 3 texts, we lose reverence for science FOUCAULT
  • language  adapt our discourse to anything
  • “discourse” means “language”
  • Prohibition o 1. with regard to terms o 2. distinction between madness & sanity o 3. with regard to truth
  1. Talk about sexuality & politics a. Talk about sexual fantasies or death at the table b. We can learn a great deal, but not allowed c. Society is telling us how to use words, give us a certain proximity & a word d. Not free with speech e. See how these prohibitions affect science
  2. distinction between madness & sanity a. if someone thinks differently, thought to a “mad” person b. women who did think differently were burned as being witches

c. the madman has no coherent or logical speech d. what we call “mad” is based on social construct

  1. will to truth a. society decides who will speak truth b. belong to scientific group c. truth is very Nieztsche-ian  we are obsessed with truth & constantly lyrics i. yet we claim we’re fascinated by truth & ignore him who says he knows